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KamulaâElevala | |
---|---|
KamulaâElevala River | |
Geographic distribution | northern Western Province, Papua New Guinea |
Linguistic classification | TransâNew Guinea |
Proto-language | Proto-KamulaâElevala |
Subdivisions |
|
Glottolog | kamu1264 |
Map: The AwinâPaâKamula languages of New Guinea
The AwinâPa and Kamula languages
Other TransâNew Guinea languages
Other Papuan languages
Austronesian languages
Uninhabited |
The KamulaâElevala languages are a small family of the TransâNew Guinea languages spoken in the region of the Elevala River.
There are three languages, namely Aekyowm (Awin), Pare (Pa), and Kamula. They are not obviously related to each other, but Aekyowm and Pare are closer to each other than to Kamula. [2]
A more in-depth classification by Suter and Usher (2017) is as follows. [2]
Stephen Wurm (1975) added Awin and Pa to an expanded Central and South New Guinea branch of TNG, a position reversed by Ross (2005). The connection between AwinâPa and Kamula was established by Suter & Usher. [3]
Proto-KamulaâElevala | |
---|---|
Reconstruction of | KamulaâElevala languages |
Reconstructed ancestors |
Usher (2020) reconstructs the consonant and vowel inventories as follows: [1]
Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | *m | *n | |||
Plosive | voiceless | *p (or *h) | *t | *k | |
voiced | *b (or *p) | *d | *g | ||
Fricative | *s | ||||
Semivowel | *w | *j |
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | *i | *u | |
Close-mid | *e | *o | |
Open-mid | *É | ||
Open | *ĂŠ | *a |
There is also the diphthong *ai.
Usher (2020) reconstructs the AwinâPa pronouns as: [1]
sg | du | pl | |
---|---|---|---|
1 | *nÉ | *ni, *ki | |
2 | *go | *gi | |
3 | *jÉ |
In the 1du, Awin has /ki/ and Pare /ni/, /niki/, /nigi/. The Kamula singular forms are quite similar (na, wa, je), but it does not have the dual.
Some Proto-Kamula-Elevala lexical reconstructions by Usher (2020) are: [1]
gloss | Proto-Kamula-Elevala |
---|---|
head | *keÌba |
ear | *m[É/oÌ]d[É/oÌ] |
eye | *kinÉ |
nose | *kineÌ |
tusk/tooth | *bateÌ |
tongue/flame | *taâ± |
knee/leg | *tama |
bone | *keÌdÉ |
louse | *awV |
dog | *ti |
pig | *mâaâ±nĂŠ |
bird | *teÌja |
egg/fruit/seed | *m[É/oÌ]k[É/oÌ] |
tree | *jeÌ |
man | *k[É/oÌ]b[a/É] |
sun/day | *gani |
stone | *ikeÌ |
name | *pi |
eat/drink | *deÌ- |
one | *tV[n/d]oÌ |
Below are all of the lexical reconstructions of Proto-Kamula-Elevala from Suter and Usher (2017):
[2]
gloss | Proto-Kamula-Elevala |
---|---|
house | *aja |
mushroom | *ap(É,o) |
hear | *dade- |
where? | *dai |
sago | *daja |
eat, drink | *de- |
burn, cook | *du- |
middle | *dunu |
brother | *ei |
sun, day | *gani |
belly, bowels | *gene |
leech | *gimada |
hold | *hamV- |
upright | *hane |
name | *hi |
light (in weight) | *hodoka |
stand, stay | *hV- |
sago thatch | *jeme |
hit | *jV- |
bone | *kedÉ |
man | *kopo |
now, today | *kwa- |
thigh | *madina |
shoulder | *makĂŠ |
know | *maN(ĂŠ,a)- |
teeth, mouth | *mat(e,i) |
kindle | *mi- |
son, child | *mi |
body | *mot(e,i) |
joint | *mu |
tusk | *patĂŠ |
skin disease | *peseni |
die | *po- |
tie, wrap | *podi |
pierce, burst | *poko- |
heart, pity | *pÉdÉw(e,a) |
be soft | *pÉpÉtĂŠ- |
close eyes | *pudi- |
sit | *pV- |
speech | *sa |
rafter | *saka |
paddle | *sode |
tongue | *tai |
afternoon | *tamide |
make, do | *ti- |
embers | *tine |
bow (for arrows) | *tÉ |
upstream | *t(É,o)t(É,o) |
thorn | *tu |
banana | *tuma |
go | *tV- |
one | *tVdo |
illicit | *u |
scar | *ud(e,i) |
urine | *ute |
grub | *wĂŠja |
left (hand) | *weke |
Proto-Elevala reconstructions from Suter and Usher (2017): [2]
gloss | Proto-Elevala |
---|---|
hand, arm | *a |
lie down | *ĂŠ- |
sand | *daNi |
give | *dĂŠ- |
flea | *dideme |
meat | *dinĂŠ |
testicles | *dipÉ |
crocodile | *dope |
sap, juice | *dÉdĂŠ |
fingernail | *d(É,a)kĂŠ |
see | *dV- |
sugarcane | *ga |
beak | *ga |
sing | *gi- |
gums | *gine |
younger brother | *gÉmÉde |
cut | *gu |
stick | *gum(É,a) |
count | *hiakV- |
breath | *hine |
do, make | *hÉmV- |
carry on head | *i- |
stone | *ike |
song | *jÉkĂŠ |
set on fire | *kamV- |
leg | *kate |
beetle | *kiame |
thunder | *kima(ti) |
nose | *kine |
face | *kiNÉ-namĂŠ58 |
white | *kÉnV-kaina59 |
coconut | *kÉpÉkĂŠ |
pig | *mainĂŠ |
head | *mini |
below | *moka |
fish | *mone |
stem | *moNĂŠ |
what? | *na |
cane mail shirt | *napo |
charcoal | *o |
drum | *pi |
heavy | *piena |
buttocks | *po |
smell | *pÉmĂŠ |
bride price | *puNe |
goanna | *sÉNÉmĂŠ |
yesterday | *te |
sago thatch | *temĂŠ |
rattan | *tike |
ground, earth | *tÉ |
wild | *tÉna |
The following basic vocabulary words are from McElhanon & Voorhoeve (1970), [4] Shaw (1973), [5] and Shaw (1986), [6] as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database: [7]
gloss | Pare | Aekyom |
---|---|---|
head | keba; kiba | pÉÆe |
hair | osÉ; ouse | tÉnÉ |
ear | mogamÉ; mogo; mÉgÉ | kÉndÉkÉ |
eye | kere-mo; kinemo; kinemÉ | krO-ĆÉ |
nose | kene; kine | koe |
tooth | male; marÉ; pÉrÉ | pÊ°ÉtÉ |
tongue | tÉ | tiË |
leg | tamakali | |
louse | kiba Êo; kiba ÊÉ; É | huÉlÉ |
dog | ti; til | psane |
pig | mele | |
bird | tie; tiye | |
egg | moÊo; mÉÊÉ | |
blood | sowo; sÉwÉ | |
bone | ko; kÉ | kro |
skin | sia; siga; siya | kare |
breast | bu | tutÉ |
tree | i̧; ĩ | de; doe |
man | kobo | |
woman | wigi | |
sun | gáșœnÉÌ; gine | toe |
moon | abi | |
water | mÉa; omÉ; ÉmÉÉ; ume | waÉ |
fire | ne; nÉ | de; doe |
stone | iebÉ; iyebo | |
road, path | utigi | tÉnÉ |
name | hi | hi |
eat | da; denu; de-nu | dÉ |
one | oteso; ÉtesÉ | |
two | diyabo; diyabÉ | |
String Bag | dissa; disaÉ |
Proposed AwinâPa reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma: [8]
Loanwords between Kamula and Doso: [2]
No. | Kamula | Doso | Turumsa |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 'father' | [a:] 'father' | [a:] 'father' |
2 | 'mother' | ['wai] 'mother' | ['wai] 'mother' |
3 | 'older brother' | ['bapa] 'older brother' | |
4 | 'older sister' | ['nana] 'older sister' | |
5 | 'blood' | ['omari] 'blood' | |
6 | 'stomach' | [kĂč'ko] 'belly (outside)' | |
7 | 'wallaby' | [ka'pia] 'wallaby' | [kapia] 'wallaby' |
8 | 'cassowary' | [wa:taÉŸa] 'cassowary' | [wa:taÉŸa] 'cassowary' |
9 | 'cloud' | ['waÉŸa] 'cloud' | |
10 | 'sand' | ['asiÉŸa] 'sand' |
Aekyom loanwords from Ok languages: [2]
No. | Aekyom | Mountain Ok | Lowland Ok |
---|---|---|---|
1 | [mon] 'rubbish' | *mÉËn 'rubbish, compost' | |
2 | [ÉșoĆ] 'garden newly felled' | *ÉŸaĆg 'garden' | *joĆg 'garden' |
3 | [khno] 'canoe' | *kono 'canoe' | |
4 | [ambum(e)] 'turtle' | *ambÉËm 'turtle species' | *ambom 'turtle' |
5 | [khwiÉșe] 'hornbill' | *kaweËÉŸ ' Papuan hornbill' | *kaweÉŸ 'hornbill' |
6 | [ubine] ' rhinoceros beetle' | *umiËn ' rhinoceros beetle' | |
7 | [mom] 'nephew, maternal' | *mÉËm 'mother's brother' | *mom 'mother's brother' |
8 | [ahwoe] 'grandmother' | *ap(e,o)Ëk 'grandmother' | *apok 'grandmother' |
9 | [khendoke] 'outer ear' | *kindÉËĆg 'inner ear' | *kende 'ear' |
10 | [mgat-Éșam] 'in the mouth' | *maĆgat 'mouth, chin' | *maĆgot 'mouth' |
Kamula loanwords from Aramia River languages: [2]
No. | Kamula | Waruna | Gogodala |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 'taro' | [bibi] 'taro' | [bibi] 'taro' |
2 | 'yam' | [waisa] 'yam' | |
3 | 'canoe' | [gwawa] 'canoe' | [gawa] 'canoe' |
4 | 'paddle, oar' | [keari] 'paddle' | [keari] 'paddle' |
5 | 'chicken' | [kakaba] 'fowl' | |
6 | 'breadfruit' | [kawaki] 'breadfruit' |
Potential cognates between KamulaâElevala and AwyuâDumut (Healey 1970 [9]): [2]
AwyuâDumut (Healey 1970) | KamulaâElevala |
---|---|
pAD *dat- 'hear' | pKE *dade- 'hear' |
pAD *do- 'be cooked' | pKE *du- 'burn, cook' |
pAD *Édex- 'give' | pE *dĂŠ- 'give' |
pAD *fĂŒp 'name' | pKE *hi 'name' |
pAD *göp 'you (sg.)' | pE *go 'you (sg.)' |
pAD *ket 'flower' | Pa [ke] 'blossom' |
pAD *mak 'shoulder' | pKE *makĂŠ 'shoulder' |
pAD *nop 'I' | pE *nÉ 'I' |
pAD *or 'excreta, intestines' | Kamula /o/ 'abdomen, belly' |
pAD *xaiban 'head' | Pa [keba] 'head' |
pAD *xop 'male, man' | pKE *kopo 'man' |
pAD *yin 'tree, wood, fire' | Pa [áșœ] 'tree' |
pA *bu 'buttocks' | pE *po 'buttocks' |
pA *dĂŒbe, *dĂŒbi 'island' | Aekyom [dupi] 'island' |
pA *dĂŒb(-ro) 'heart' | Kamula 'heart' |
pA *makan, *mokan 'low, beneath' | pE *moka 'below' |
pA *midi(n) 'thigh' | pKE *madina 'thigh' |
pA *wĂŒn 'liver' | Pa [wumÉ] 'liver' |
pA *xui(-to) 'sky' | Aekyom [khwoe] 'sky, heaven' |
pD *ba- 'sit' | pKE *pV- 'sit' |
pD *kumöt 'thunder' | pE *kima(ti) 'thunder' |