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| Sepik–Ramu | |
|---|---|
| (obsolete) | |
| Geographic distribution | New Guinea |
| Linguistic classification | Proposed language family |
| Subdivisions |
|
| Glottolog | None |
The Sepik–Ramu languages are an obsolete language family of New Guinea linking the Sepik, Ramu, Nor–Pondo (Lower Sepik), Leonhard Schultze (Walio–Papi) and Yuat families, together with the Taiap language isolate, and proposed by Donald Laycock and John Z'graggen in 1975. [1]
Sepik–Ramu would consist of a hundred languages of the Sepik and Ramu river basins of northern Papua New Guinea, but spoken by only 200,000 people in all. The languages tend to have simple phonologies, with few consonants or vowels and usually no tones.
The best known Sepik–Ramu language is Iatmül. The most populous are Iatmül's fellow Ndu languages Abelam and Boiken, with about 35,000 speakers apiece.
Malcolm Ross and William A. Foley separately re-evaluated the Sepik–Ramu hypothesis in 2005. They both found no evidence that it forms a valid family. However, all of the constituent branches, except for Yuat within Ramu, remain individually valid in his evaluation. Ross links Nor–Pondo to Ramu in a Ramu–Lower Sepik proposal, places Leonhard Schultze (tentatively broken up into Walio and Papi) within an extended Sepik family, and treats Yuat and Taiap as independent families.
Classification
Ethnologue
This list is a mirror of the classification in Ethnologue 15.
- Sepik–Ramu phylum (based on Laycock 1973)
- Taiap isolate
- Leonhard Schultze stock
- Nor–Pondo stock (6 languages)
- Ramu subphylum (37 languages)
- Ramu superstock (29 languages)
- Yuat–Langam superstock (13 languages)
- Mongol–Langam family
- Yuat–Maramba stock
- Sepik subphylum (50 languages) [see subclassification at that article]
Foley (2018)
Uncontroversially coherent subgroups accepted by Foley (2018) are: [2]
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Lexical comparison
Below is a comparison of proto- Ndu, proto- Lower Sepik, and proto- Ottilien reconstructed by and listed in Foley (2005). [3]
gloss proto- Ndu proto- Lower Sepik proto- Ottilien man, person *ntɨw *nor *namot water *ŋkɨw *arɨm fire *ya *awr *s(u)ək sun *ɲa *ra(u) moon *mpapmɨw *m(w)il ? *kər(v)i breast *mɨwɲ *nɨŋgay *mɨr tooth *nɨmpɨy *sisiŋk ? *nda(r) bone *apə *sariŋamp *ɣar tongue *tɨkŋa *minɨŋ *mi(m) eye *mɨyR *tambri *rəmeak nose *tam(w)ə *ŋgum leg *man *namuŋk *or ? ear *wan *kwand- name *cɨ *ɣi pig *mp(w)al *numpran *rəkəm snake *kampwəy *wakɨn *ndop mosquito *kɨvɨy *naŋgun *ŋgit eat *kɨ *am(b) *amb go *yɨ *wa *saŋg come *ya *ya *kɨp sit *rə *sa *mbirak stand *rap(m) *-tik one *nək *mb(w)ia- *kaku two *ri-pa- *mbuniŋ three *-ram
Due to its highly divergent lexicon, Foley does not classify Sepik with Lower Sepik and Ramu.
The lexical data below is from the Trans-New Guinea database, [4] Foley (2005), [3] and Usher (2020) (for Proto-Arafundi). [5]
| family | language | head | hair | ear | eye | nose | tooth | tongue | leg | blood | bone | skin | breast |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Trans-New Guinea | Proto-Trans-New Guinea | *kobutu; *kV(mb,p)utu; *mUtUna; *mVtVna | *iti; *(nd,s)umu(n,t)[V]; *zumun | *ka(nd,t)(i,e)C; *kat(i,e)C; *tVmV(d) | *g(a,u)mu; *ŋg(a,u)mu; *(ŋg,k)iti [maŋgV]; *nVpV | *mundu; *mutu | *magata; *maŋgat[a]; *titi | *balaŋ; *mbilaŋ; *me(l,n)e; *me(n,l)e | *kani(n); *k(a,o)ond(a,o)C; *kitu | *ke(ñj,s)a; *kesa | *kondaC; *kwata(l,n) | *gatapu; *(ŋg,k)a(nd,t)apu | *amu |
| Yadë | Nagatiman | ÊŒsu | ÊŒsÊŒÇahuáµ½a | Ä…huÇuÊ” | na:ba | yÉ›lu | aÇižiÊ” | wi:nuÊ” | É›lÉ›:b̶u | žib̶uÊ” | ma:ba | ||
| Busa | Odiai | owuna | etete | dinʌ | dena | wʌti | wuti | dʌgʌrʌ | aɔ̨ | ab̶uwibʌ | tati | ną | |
| Amto-Musan | Amto | twæ | (twæ) iwɔ | ye | mo | ni | i | hæne; hʌne | nʌkei | hae | ka | ne | |
| Amto-Musan | Siawi | nani | nanigi | eÊ” | mene | ÇimÊŒ | Ê”i | hanÉ› | hařʔ | hařʔ | Ê”aoko | ne | |
| Left May | Bo | kÊŒmi | kÊŒmsiya | kÉ” | mÊŒÇo | ki | ki | lÉ›sÉ› | kwo | mutuk | tÊŒpÉ” | nÉ” | |
| Walio | Yawiyo (Wosawari dialect) | tipafu | yei | afe | nimau | tɩmʌsi | nʌfe | tanotai | teyuowa | ihuwa | toefahewa | mama | |
| Papi | Papi | auwiyu | ařupisi | mʌgʌnaba | sunweyo | tʌnipɔku | sʋmunu | sakeyo | taneke | naikʌmio | pʌsiyæ | abiyaiɔ | |
| Sepik, Abau | Abau | makwe | nwek | nane; nanÉ› | kasan | nas | sane; sanÉ› | sune; sunÉ› | nyoh | ayo; i | ohi | mu | |
| Sepik, Iwam | Iwam | mu | wun | nu | nomwos | piknu | kwane | wərku; wɨrku | ni | keew; kew | pəw | muy | |
| Sepik, Wogamusin-Chenapian | Chenapian | toapᵒ; tuwap | taoɛnavon; taunabon | gwabuo; ugwabə | džinano; ǰinino | mɨnɨk; munɩk | diu; duɨʔ | taun; ton | soʷanaup; šonawəp | ne; nᵊe | dža; ǰa· | bɩn; bön | mu; muʔ |
| Sepik, Tama | Yessan-Mayo | tara | wan | la; lə | raŋkɨ; raŋki | lər; lir | tawlə | towa; warə | nap | yaha | was | mu; mukw | |
| Sepik, Ram | Pouye | nouraka | maroalaka | nowar | wolokə | piyapa | laləmu | lalə | aywi | lakə | nəpyei | muy | |
| Sepik, Yellow River | Namia | magu | mak | eno | nəmala; nɨmala | pinarɨ; pinarə | lar | li:; lipala | norə | lak | urarə | mu | |
| Sepik, Ndu | Proto-Ndu [3] | *wan | *mɨyR | *tam(w)ə | *nɨmpɨy | *tɨkŋa | *man | *apə | *mɨwɲ | ||||
| Sepik, Nukuma | Kwoma | masək | fu:; mabiya | mi:; miyi | sumojɨ; sumwonj | pu; tarəkwi | kwunja; tarekwoy | ya:te; yati | pi | apo; hapa | mampə | muk; muku | |
| Sepik, Sanio | Saniyo-Hiyewe | tu; worɛ siyaʔi | mato towe; tutowe | apahɛ; apaniyɛ | nihe; nihɛ | ɛrɛme; ɛrɛmɛ | pi | sořowɛ; soruwɛ | lowe; rowɛ | fisa'i; fisaʔi | paʔaře; pa'arɛ | tahɛ | mo'u; moʔu |
| Sepik, Bahinemo | Bahinemo | thu | thunʌba | bʌsiya | niya | sɛkʌnɩ | pi | thɔlu | lowa | mahələ | hʌbi | thʌbi | mosu |
| Sepik, Alamblak | Alamblak | mÊŒbogath; mɛ̈ƀɨǥatÊ° | tʰɨ'maʀ̌Ä; tÊŒmarts; tʰɨ'maʀ̌š | yimbÉ£indang; yÉ©mbɨǥin'daÅ‹gɨtÊ°; yÉ©mbÊŒlindangÊŒm | ɲinga; 'ɲiÅ‹gaʀ̥̥̌; ningaw | 'hÊ°ušɨ ɨtÊ°; khusÉ©mÊŒth; 'kÊ°uÄɨmɨtÊ°; kusm | bÉ©'Äɛ̈tÊ°; biʃə; bÉ©'šɛ̈tÊ°; bÉ©sÊŒm | tor; torkh; 'tÊ°oʀ̥̌tÊ° | wÊŒlat; 'wÉ·'Å™atÊ°; wura | khukhupam; kɨ'kÊ°upÊ°am | thÊŒphim; tɨ'pɩʀ̥̌; tɨpi | tʰɨ'Ç¥atÊ°; thÊŒkhath | mingam; miÅ‹atÊ°; niÅ‹gam |
| Tayap | Tayap [6] | kokir | kokɨrŋgrɨt | neke | ŋgino | raw | rewi | malɨt | ndow | and | nɨŋg | toto | min |
| Piawi | Haruai (Wiyaw dialect) | 'jeʥ̮ᵊ'mat̮ɑ | jeʥ̮ᵊˈϕan | ɾ̥ɨmɨnt̮ɕ | 'momakʰ | haŋi'etʰ | andzᵊmakᵡ | alᵊ'bʌɲ | ϕa'letʰ | haɲ | jantʰ | jɩmaɤ wɨɲ | kau |
| Piawi | Pinai-Hagahai (Aramo dialect) | iʥ̮uə'xə | iˌʥ̮imə'da | jɛn'waϕe | mɛmɛʥ̮ə'magə | nama'gə | ˌjɛd̮ʑɩ 'magə | su'ə; syê | hə'damə'si | ga'ja | jɛ'də | wɩ'ɲi | a'hu |
| Arafundi | Proto- Arafundi [5] | *kopa | *tum[a] | *kund[a] | *pok | *kandz[a] | *taTumat[a] | *panamb[a] | *kombet- | *jekimb[a] | *kumb[a]-; *tut[a] | *ji[t/s] | |
| Yuat | Biwat | fop; fopeh | fufuimaivi; fufuimaye | tuanhe; tundu | siketeh; sipta | gerekeh; Å‹erek | andu; andusivahe | be; behe | gambang; geambangeh | amberaeh; ambra | amfuva; amfuvaheh | gamfuin; iaveteh | meru; meruhe |
| Yuat | Kyenele (Miyak dialect) | ᵽop | fusibɩľu | tandu | sɩpʰala | nʌnɛlɩŋ | ŋandu | mpe | ŋgambaŋ | ambala | amᵽuwa | nᵽɩsakʰ | miřu |
| Lower Sepik | Proto-Lower Sepik [3] | *kwand-; *kwandum | *tambri | *sisiŋk; *?*sisiŋk | *minɨŋ; *minɨŋk | *namuŋk | *ya-; *ya-r | *sariŋamp | *nɨŋgay; *nɨŋkay | ||||
| Ramu | Ambakich (Arango dialect) | katʃi | katʃokei | kər | dun | kɨpɨ | aur | mil | brip | sin | karatʃ | okanɨk | oɾitʃ |
| Ramu | Proto-Watam-Awar-Gamay [3] | *kwar | *rəmeak | *ŋgum | *nda(r) | *mi(m) | *or ? | *ɣar | *mɨr |
| family | language | louse | dog | pig | bird | egg | tree | sun | moon | water | fire | stone | path |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Trans-New Guinea | Proto-Trans-New Guinea | *niman | *n(e,i); *n(e)i; *n[e]i; *yak; *yaka[i]; *yanem | *maŋgV; *munaka; *mun(a,u)ka | *ida; *inda ~ *iñja | *kamali; *kamuli; *ketana | *kal(a,i)m; *kamali; *takVn; *takVn[V] | *nok; *(n)ok; *ok(u); *ok[V] | *inda; *k(a,e)dap; *k(a,e)(n,d)ap; *kambu; *k(a,o)nd(a,u)p | *kamb(a,u)na; *(na)muna; *[na]muna | |||
| Yadë | Nagatiman | mibaÊ” | kaliÊ” | gÇÉ›ÇiÊ” | pÊ‹lɛʔ | kah | ti: | tuÊ” | ahuÊiÊ” | anÉ©ziÊ” | ařʌgɛʔ | ||
| Busa | Odiai | amo | inʌri | waru | wʌnʌ | mʌiyʌ | nda | ani | bitɔ | ti | |||
| Amto-Musan | Amto | nanu | hɔ | ma | ai | ai: | amɩ | wi: | maři | tipeki | mo | ||
| Amto-Musan | Siawi | nani | so: | kinÊŒdiÊ” | Ê”ai | iÇÉ” | ameÊ” | wi | maÇi | tÊŒbÉ›ki | mono | ||
| Left May | Bo | ka | naři | ᵽu | wɔ | wɔi | ka | ʔu | ta | tʌpʌki | keři; kʌři | ||
| Walio | Yawiyo (Wosawari dialect) | dibafuyei | ifau; ivau | ami ami | auma | aumufu | yanu | utlauwe | tanuwa; tiyami | tab̶iya | efʌmowa | ||
| Papi | Papi | ařupɩsɩ | agabu | tʌmaub̶o | ɔb̶ɔ; ɔ:sani | usouyo | na:b̶ʌkʌ | ařukowa | řiku | tab̶iyaio | pʌbřiyaio | ||
| Sepik, Abau | Abau | mapru | nwɔf; nwɔhɔ | fwok | ahnɛ | ne | no; nɔw | e; ey | yen; yeny | fu; hu | ya | məny | |
| Sepik, Iwam | Iwam | ŋən; nɨn | nwa | hu | owit | yen | pae(kap); paykap | pi | pwan | op; o(p) | pay | siya | |
| Sepik, Wogamusin-Chenapian | Chenapian | damian; dÉ™miaÊ” | gwara; ogwara | kᵘo; ku | džɛosiÊ”; Ç°É›oÅ¡i | noÉ™; á¹£â±u no | mÉ™ntÉ™p; montoap | džabɨn; Ç°aÆ€an | nu | džoÊ”; Ç°oÊ” | un | nogÉ›rao; noguaÅ™o | uni |
| Sepik, Tama | Yessan-Mayo | nɨ; ni | wala | for | ap | yen; yɨn | me | yabəl; yampəl | lup; lɨyf | ok; okw | k-er; kər | pa | |
| Sepik, Ram | Pouye | nipikəm | aukwə | yio | warə | tau | taliyə | yalma | you | tapo | tɨl | ||
| Sepik, Yellow River | Namia | nanpeu | ar; ara | lwae | eyu | puna | mi | wuluwa | yem | ijo; ito | ipi | lijei | |
| Sepik, Ndu | Proto-Ndu | *r; *wac | *mp(w)al | *mɨy | *ɲa | *mpapmɨw | *ŋkɨw | *ya | |||||
| Sepik, Nukuma | Kwoma | nəkə; nɨka | asa | buri; poyi | apu | apo; bey; mpei | me | ya | nowəka; nɨwɨka | uku | hi; hi: | papa | |
| Sepik, Sanio | Saniyo-Hiyewe | nɛmɛ | yo; you | fe | iřowɛ; iruwɛ | hotɛ | me; mɛ | poɔyuɛ; poweyɛ | yamɛ; yamɛ' | sa'i; saʔi | yɛhɛ | tapiyɛ | |
| Sepik, Bahinemo | Bahinemo | nʌmu | yo | fa | wabo | wabo mu | mi | tɩniya | yamal | hagi | ya | ba | |
| Sepik, Alamblak | Alamblak | nÉ™m; 'nɛ̈mɨtÊ°; nÊŒmo | yauʀ̥̌ʸ; yawi; yawu | 'ᵽɛ̈gɨʀ̥̌; fagÊŒr; fəɣ | nongwar; 'nugwaʀ̥̌ | fÉ£a; fokam; áµ½o'Ç¥at | máµ¼Ä; mim; mᵼš; mɨy | mar; 'mařɨʀ̥̌ | yam; 'yamɨtÊ°; yamÊŒth | bukbam; 'bupÊ°am; bu-pam | kaÉ£; kÊ°aǥɨtÊ°; khaxth | Å¡; taxim | yɨ'Ç¥otʸoÇ¥atÊ° |
| Tayap | Tayap | kɨkrikɨ; pakɨnd | nje | mbor | tam | naŋa | nɨm | arawer | karep | awin | otar | moŋapat; njiŋai; ŋawmbɨ | nder |
| Piawi | Haruai (Wiyaw dialect) | jɩm | waɲa | han | 'jaʷər | jaur mɩntɕ | bɨ | naijʌ | r̥̃ʌn | ɾ̥a'bʌ | ɾ̥ᵼn | ɾ̥ɩgɨ | ganɨmϕ |
| Piawi | Pinai-Hagahai (Aramo dialect) | i'mɤd̮ʑi | wɛ'ɲa | jɛ'nɤ | jau'thə | jau't͑umu'si | mɤ'na | ɽə'ma | sɔ'kɷnə | gɯ | ɲa'bɤ | ɽɩ'gə | 'diədə |
| Arafundi | Proto- Arafundi | *emuŋg | *tawa[m/mb] | *jat | *kenet | *mund[a] | *jes | *kVjom | *kepa | *jomb | *jamb | *naŋgum | |
| Yuat | Biwat | uta; utaeh | ken; kenhe | vereh; vre | kaok; kaokhek | momoateh; mumuat | mung; mungeh | va; vaeh | mumere; mumereh | mam; mumeh | mehen; men | ghateh; yiak | maikua; miakuahe |
| Yuat | Kyenele (Miyak dialect) | wututÊ°oma | gÉ›n | Æ€eÇe | wanma | wanmuma | mï | Æ€anma | Å‹gɨŋat | maÅ‹am | mɨn | mɨndÉ©m | mayt |
| Lower Sepik | Proto-Lower Sepik | *nam | *numpran | *awŋ; *awŋk | *y(uw)an | *sɨnmari | *?*m(w)il; *m(w)il | *arɨm | *awr; *aw-r | ||||
| Ramu | Ambakich (Arango dialect) | ɛwar | ɛrɛl | ksu | gumai | mimo | ondɨr̥ | ɛmɩm | bran | amɨ | an | mɨndɨr | duwan |
| Ramu | Proto-Watam-Awar-Gamay | *rəkəm | *ŋgwarak | *ra(u) | *kər(v)i | *s(u)ək |
| family | language | man | woman | name | eat | one | two |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Trans-New Guinea | Proto-Trans-New Guinea | *abV; *ambi | *panV; *pan(V) | *ibi; *imbi; *wani | *na; *na- | *ta(l,t)(a,e) | |
| Yadë | Nagatiman | mÉ©sɛʔ | hiÉ›ÇÉ› | žuwaÊ” | teÇɛʔ | ||
| Busa | Odiai | nutu | tɔ | muniʌren | otutu | tinʌnʌ | |
| Amto-Musan | Amto | kyu | hama | me:ne | ohu | kiyaA | |
| Amto-Musan | Siawi | yÉ›nokono | Ê”eÇo | pe | sÊŒmo | himolo | |
| Left May | Bo | nʌkʌ | kwa | sanoʔ | sɔsɔ | tisʌ | |
| Walio | Yawiyo (Wosawari dialect) | to; to i:wa | sauto | afaʔunařu | ařʌsʌbau | ařʌfři | |
| Papi | Papi | sanoáµ½o | su:bu | opo akepo | sunuboku | suwÊŒbiyaio | |
| Sepik, Abau | Abau | lu; or; ur | sa | uru | ra | mun; rin | pris |
| Sepik, Iwam | Iwam | kam; yen-kam | wik | (n)ai; (nd)ai | oe; ruk; su | Å‹wis | |
| Sepik, Wogamusin-Chenapian | Chenapian | tama; tamö | tauwo; tawö | tamgu | naÅ™; sâ±É™rəʔ | Ç°â±É™k; nÉ›si; á¹£iá¹£i | |
| Sepik, Tama | Yessan-Mayo | tama; tamə | ta: | a(m) | wurɨ | fes | |
| Sepik, Ram | Pouye | lamo | tʔlum | yikən | |||
| Sepik, Yellow River | Namia | lu | ere | ilei | (t) | tipia | pəli |
| Sepik, Ndu | Proto-Ndu | *ntiw | *cɨ | *kɨ | *nək | ||
| Sepik, Nukuma | Kwoma | ma | mi:ma | hi | a | pochi | uprus |
| Sepik, Sanio | Saniyo-Hiyewe | mɛni; mitaru | taunɛ; tawnɛ | yapɛ | aiyei; asiyʌ | hɛta'i; taʔi | hɛsi |
| Sepik, Bahinemo | Bahinemo | 'É©ma | swani | wufa | diyaw | dÊŒbatha | husi |
| Sepik, Alamblak | Alamblak | yima; 'yi'maʀ̥̌ | 'metɨtÊ°7; metum | 'yuÆ€atÊ°; yufa; yufat | fa; ka; 'kÊ°aɛ̈ʀ̥̌; weyanum; ye | rÉ›phar; rpa; řɨpÊ°atÊ° | hutsif; xoÄiáµ½; 'xoÅ¡É©áµ½ |
| Tayap | Tayap | munje | noŋor | nomb | a | nambar; mbatep | sene |
| Piawi | Haruai (Wiyaw dialect) | 'nabʌ | mʌ | hʌmpʰ | nɨm'da | waɲɩŋ'geϕ | jɩ'mag 'jɩŋgʷʌ |
| Piawi | Pinai-Hagahai (Aramo dialect) | na'ba | mə'gə | nabamɩ'he | ˌmomə'dɛɽə | a'gə | ˌhəgə'naβəma'ɨ |
| Arafundi | Proto- Arafundi | *nuŋgum | *nam | *membi[a] | *nembV- | *kamin, *kondamin | |
| Yuat | Biwat | foakpa; fuakpahe | arepa; arepahe | vu'geh; vuŋ | ueh jiveh; u-u give | nategeh; natek | arauu; aravueh |
| Yuat | Kyenele (Miyak dialect) | aƀɷt | miandu | tÅ¡É›ntÅ¡É›ntÅ¡uÆ€a | Å‹aykÊ°ÊŒkÊ° | aÇawin | |
| Lower Sepik | Proto-Lower Sepik | *Å‹ay | *am-; *am(b) | *mb(w)ia- | *ri-pa- | ||
| Ramu | Ambakich (Arango dialect) | kambo | anatʃo | dʒi | mɨondɨmqam | koŋ; ondɨsɨno | nuŋgun |
| Ramu | Proto-Watam-Awar-Gamay | *ɣi | *amb | *kaku | *mbuniŋ |
See also
References
- ^ Laycock, D. C. and Z'graggen, John A. 1975. The Sepik-Ramu Phylum. In Wurm, S.A. (ed.), Papuan Languages and the New Guinea Linguistic Scene, New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study 1, 729-763. Australian National University.
- ^ Foley, William A. (2018). "The Languages of the Sepik-Ramu Basin and Environs". In Palmer, Bill (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 197–432. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
- ^ a b c d e Foley, William A. (2005). "Linguistic prehistory in the Sepik-Ramu basin". In Andrew Pawley; Robert Attenborough; Robin Hide; Jack Golson (eds.). Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 109–144. ISBN 0858835622. OCLC 67292782.
- ^ Greenhill, Simon (2016). "TransNewGuinea.org - database of the languages of New Guinea". Retrieved 2020-11-05.
- ^ a b Usher, Timothy (2020). "New Guinea World". Archived from the original on 2022-12-16. Retrieved 2020-12-31.
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