Other states that possess nuclear weapons are
India,
Pakistan, and
North Korea. Since the NPT entered into force in 1970, these three states were not parties to the Treaty and have conducted overt
nuclear tests. North Korea had been a party to the NPT but withdrew in 2003.
States that formerly possessed nuclear weapons are
South Africa (developed nuclear weapons but then disassembled its arsenal before joining the NPT)[13] and the former Soviet republics of
Belarus,
Kazakhstan, and
Ukraine, whose weapons were transferred to Russia.
According to the
Federation of American Scientists there are approximately 3,880 active nuclear warheads and 12,119 total nuclear warheads in the world as of 2024.[14] The
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) estimated in 2023 that the total number of nuclear warheads acquired by nuclear states reached 12,512. Approximately 9,576 are kept with military stockpiles. About 3,844 warheads are deployed with missiles. 2000 warheads, which are primarily from Russia and the United States, are maintained for high operational alerts.[15]
The following is a list of
states that have acknowledged the possession of
nuclear weapons or are presumed to possess them, the approximate number of
warheads under their control, and the year they tested their first weapon and their force configuration. This list is informally known in global politics as the "Nuclear Club".[16][17] With the exception of Russia and the United States (which have subjected their nuclear forces to independent verification under various treaties) these figures are estimates, in some cases quite unreliable estimates. In particular, under the
Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty thousands of Russian and U.S. nuclear warheads are inactive in stockpiles awaiting processing. The fissile material contained in the warheads can then be recycled for use in
nuclear reactors.
From a high of 70,300 active weapons in 1986, as of 2024[update] there are approximately 3,880 active nuclear warheads and 12,119 total nuclear warheads in the world.[14] Many of the decommissioned weapons were simply stored or partially dismantled, not destroyed.[18]
It is also noteworthy that since the dawn of the
Atomic Age, the
delivery methods of most states with nuclear weapons have evolved—with some achieving a
nuclear triad, while others have consolidated away from land and air deterrents to submarine-based forces.
The United States developed the first nuclear weapons during
World War II in cooperation with the United Kingdom and Canada as part of the
Manhattan Project, out of the fear that
Nazi Germany would develop them first. It tested the first nuclear weapon on 16 July 1945 ("
Trinity") at 5:30 am, and remains the only country to have used nuclear weapons in war,
devastating the Japanese cities of
Hiroshima and
Nagasaki. The project expenditure through 1 October 1945 was reportedly $1.845–$2billion, in nominal terms,[52][53] roughly 0.8 percent of the US GDP in 1945 and equivalent to about $29 billion in 2020 money.[54]
It was the first nation to develop the
hydrogen bomb, testing an experimental prototype in 1952 ("
Ivy Mike") and a deployable weapon in 1954 ("
Castle Bravo"). Throughout the
Cold War it continued to modernize and enlarge its nuclear arsenal, but from 1992 on has been involved primarily in a program of
stockpile stewardship.[55][56][57][58] The U.S. nuclear arsenal contained 31,175 warheads at its Cold War height (in 1966).[59] During the Cold War, the United States built approximately 70,000 nuclear warheads, more than all other nuclear-weapon states combined.[60][61]
The Soviet Union tested its first nuclear weapon ("
RDS-1") in 1949. This crash project was developed partially with information obtained via
espionage during and after World War II. The Soviet Union was the second nation to have developed and tested a nuclear weapon. The direct motivation for Soviet weapons development was to achieve a balance of power during the Cold War. It tested its first megaton-range hydrogen bomb ("
RDS-37") in 1955. The Soviet Union also tested the most powerful explosive ever detonated by humans, ("
Tsar Bomba"), with a theoretical yield of 100 megatons, intentionally reduced to 50 when detonated. After its dissolution in 1991, the Soviet weapons entered officially into the possession of the Russian Federation.[62] The Soviet nuclear arsenal contained some 45,000
warheads at its peak (in 1986); the Soviet Union built about 55,000 nuclear warheads since 1949.[61]
The United Kingdom tested its first nuclear weapon ("
Hurricane") in 1952. The UK had provided considerable impetus and initial research for the early conception of the atomic bomb, aided by Austrian, German and Polish physicists working at British universities who had either fled or decided not to return to Nazi Germany or Nazi-controlled territories. The UK collaborated closely with the United States and Canada during the Manhattan Project, but had to develop its own method for manufacturing and detonating a bomb as U.S. secrecy grew after 1945. The United Kingdom was the third country in the world, after the United States and the Soviet Union, to develop and test a nuclear weapon. Its programme was motivated to have an independent deterrent against the Soviet Union, while also maintaining its status as a
great power. It tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1957 (
Operation Grapple), making it the third country to do so after the United States and Soviet Union.[63][64]
France tested its first nuclear weapon in 1960 ("
Gerboise Bleue"), based mostly on its own research. It was motivated by the
Suez Crisis diplomatic tension in relation to both the Soviet Union and its allies, the United States and United Kingdom. It was also relevant to retain great power status, alongside the United Kingdom, during the post-colonial Cold War (see:
Force de frappe). France tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1968 ("
Opération Canopus"). After the Cold War, France has disarmed 175 warheads with the reduction and modernization of its arsenal that has now evolved to a dual system based on
submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) and medium-range air-to-surface missiles (
Rafale fighter-bombers). However, new nuclear weapons are in development and reformed nuclear squadrons were trained during
Enduring Freedom operations in Afghanistan. [citation needed]
France acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1992.[65] In January 2006, President
Jacques Chirac stated a terrorist act or the use of
weapons of mass destruction against France would result in a nuclear counterattack.[66] In February 2015, President
François Hollande stressed the need for a nuclear deterrent in "a dangerous world". He also detailed the French deterrent as "fewer than 300" nuclear warheads, three sets of 16 submarine-launched ballistic missiles and 54 medium-range air-to-surface missiles and urged other states to show similar transparency.[67]
China tested its first nuclear weapon device ("
596") in 1964 at the
Lop Nur test site. The weapon was developed as a deterrent against both the United States and the Soviet Union. Two years later, China had a fission bomb capable of being put onto a
nuclear missile. It tested its first hydrogen bomb ("
Test No. 6") in 1967, 32 months after testing its first nuclear weapon (the shortest fission-to-fusion development known in history).[68] China is the only NPT nuclear-weapon state to give an unqualified negative
security assurance with its "
no first use" policy.[69][70] China acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1992.[65] As of 2016, China fielded SLBMs onboard its
JL-2 submarines.[71] As of February 2024, China had an estimated total inventory of approximately 500 warheads.[72]
According to
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), China is in the middle of a significant modernization and expansion of its nuclear arsenal. Its nuclear stockpile is expected to continue growing over the coming decade and some projections suggest that it will deploy at least as many intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) as either Russia or the US in that period. However, China's overall nuclear warhead stockpile is still expected to remain smaller than that of either of those states.[15] The Yearbook published by SIPRI in 2023 revealed that China's nuclear warheads stockpile increased by 17% in 2022, reaching 410 warheads.[73]
U.S. Department of Defense officials estimate that the Chinese had more than 500 operational nuclear warheads as of May 2023, and it was on track to posess 1,000 nuclear weapons by the year 2030.[74]
India is not a party to the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Indian officials rejected the NPT in the 1960s on the grounds that it created a world of nuclear "haves" and "have-nots", arguing that it unnecessarily restricted "peaceful activity" (including "peaceful nuclear explosives"), and that India would not accede to international control of their nuclear facilities unless all other countries engaged in
unilateral disarmament of their own nuclear weapons. The Indian position has also asserted that the NPT is in many ways a neo-colonial regime designed to deny security to post-colonial powers.[75]
The country tested what is called a "
peaceful nuclear explosive" in 1974 (which became known as "
Smiling Buddha"). The test was the first test developed after the creation of the NPT, and created new questions about how civilian nuclear technology could be diverted secretly to weapons purposes (
dual-use technology). India's secret development caused great concern and anger particularly from nations that had supplied
its nuclear reactors for peaceful and power generating needs, such as Canada.[76] After its 1974 test, India maintained that its nuclear capability was primarily "peaceful", but between 1988 and 1990 it apparently weaponized two dozen nuclear weapons for delivery by air.[77] In 1998 India tested weaponized nuclear warheads ("
Operation Shakti"), including a
thermonuclear device.[78] India adopted a "
no first use" policy in 1998.[79]
In July 2005, U.S. President
George W. Bush and Indian Prime Minister
Manmohan Singh announced a civil nuclear cooperation initiative[80] that included plans to conclude an
Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement. This initiative came to fruition through a series of steps that included India's announced plan to separate its civil and military nuclear programs in March 2006,[81] the passage of the
India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement by the
U.S. Congress in December 2006, the conclusion of a U.S.–India nuclear cooperation agreement in July 2007,[82] approval by the
IAEA of an India-specific safeguards agreement,[83] agreement by the
Nuclear Suppliers Group to a waiver of export restrictions for India,[84] approval by the U.S. Congress[85] and culminating in the signature of U.S.–India agreement for civil nuclear cooperation[86] in October 2008. The
U.S. State Department said it made it "very clear that we will not recognize India as a nuclear-weapon state".[87] The United States is bound by the
Hyde Act with India and may cease all cooperation with India if India detonates a nuclear explosive device. The US had further said it is not its intention to assist India in the design, construction or operation of sensitive nuclear technologies through the transfer of dual-use items.[88] In establishing an exemption for India, the Nuclear Suppliers Group reserved the right to consult on any future issues which might trouble it.[89] As of June 2024, India was estimated to have a stockpile of 172 warheads.[22][90][40]
Pakistan is also not a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Pakistan covertly developed nuclear weapons over decades, beginning in the late 1970s. Pakistan first delved into nuclear power after the establishment of its first nuclear power plant near
Karachi with equipment and materials supplied mainly by western nations in the early 1970s. Pakistani Prime Minister
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto promised in 1971 that if India could build nuclear weapons then Pakistan would too, according to him: "We will develop Nuclear stockpiles, even if we have to eat grass."[91]
It is believed that Pakistan has possessed nuclear weapons since the mid-1980s.[92] The United States continued to certify that Pakistan did not possess such weapons until 1990, when sanctions were imposed under the
Pressler Amendment, requiring a cutoff of U.S. economic and military assistance to Pakistan.[93] In 1998, Pakistan conducted its first
six nuclear tests at the
Ras Koh Hills in response to the five tests conducted by India a few weeks before.
In 2004, the Pakistani metallurgist
Abdul Qadeer Khan, a key figure in Pakistan's nuclear weapons program, confessed to heading an international
black market ring involved in selling nuclear weapons technology. In particular, Khan had been selling
gas centrifuge technology to North Korea, Iran, and Libya. Khan denied complicity by the Pakistani government or Army, but this has been called into question by journalists and IAEA officials, and was later contradicted by statements from Khan himself.[94]
As of early 2013, Pakistan was estimated to have had a stockpile of around 140 warheads,[95] and in November 2014 it was projected that by 2020 Pakistan would have enough fissile material for 200 warheads.[96] As of 2024,
SIPRI estimated that Pakistan had a stockpile of around 170 warheads.[15]
North Korea was a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, but announced a withdrawal on 10 January 2003, after the United States accused it of having a secret
uranium enrichment program and cut off energy assistance under the 1994
Agreed Framework. In February 2005, North Korea claimed to possess functional nuclear weapons, though their lack of a test at the time led many experts to doubt the claim. In October 2006, North Korea stated that, in response to growing intimidation by the United States, it would conduct a nuclear test to confirm its nuclear status. North Korea reported a successful nuclear test on 9 October 2006 (see
2006 North Korean nuclear test). Most U.S. intelligence officials believed that the test was probably only partially successful with a
yield of less than a kiloton.[97][98] North Korea conducted a second, higher-yield test on 25 May 2009 (see
2009 North Korean nuclear test) and a third test with still-higher yield on 12 February 2013 (see
2013 North Korean nuclear test).
North Korea claimed to have conducted its
first hydrogen-bomb test on 5 January 2016, though measurements of seismic disturbances indicate that the detonation was not consistent with a hydrogen bomb.[99] On 3 September 2017,
North Korea detonated a device, which caused a magnitude 6.1 tremor, consistent with a low-powered
thermonuclear detonation; NORSAR estimates the yield at 250 kilotons[100] of TNT. In 2018, North Korea announced a halt in nuclear weapons tests and made a conditional commitment to denuclearisation of the
Korean Peninsula;[101][102] however, in December 2019, it indicated it no longer considered itself bound by the moratorium.[103]
According to the
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), North Korea's military nuclear programme remains central to its national security strategy and it may have assembled up to 30 nuclear weapons and could produce more. North Korea conducted more than 90 ballistic missile tests during 2022–the highest number it has ever undertaken in a single year.[15]
Israel is widely believed to have been the sixth country in the world to develop nuclear weapons, but it has not acknowledged its nuclear forces. It had "rudimentary, but deliverable," nuclear weapons available as early as 1966.[105][106][107][108][109][110][11] Israel is not a party to the NPT. Israel engages in
strategic ambiguity, saying it would not be the first country to "introduce" nuclear weapons into the region, but refusing to otherwise confirm or deny a nuclear weapons program or arsenal. This policy of "nuclear opacity" has been interpreted as an attempt to get the benefits of
deterrence with a minimal political cost.[11][12] Due to a US ban on funding countries that have
weapons of mass destruction, Israel would lose around $2 billion a year in military and other aid from the US if it admitted to possessing nuclear weapons.[8]
On 7 November 2023, Heritage Minister
Amihai Eliyahu said during a radio interview that the nuclear option would be "one way" to deal with
Gaza. His remarks were criticized by the United States and Russia, and Eliyahu was subsequently suspended from the Israeli cabinet.[114]
Some countries are known to have delegated launch authority to military personnel in the event that the usual launch authority is incapacitated; whether or not the 'pre-delegated' authority exists at any particular time is kept secret.[116] In the United States, some military commanders have been delegated authority to launch nuclear weapons "when the urgency of time and circumstances clearly does not permit a specific decision by the President." Russia has a semi automated
Dead Hand system which may allow military commanders to act based on certain pre-defined criteria. British nuclear-armed submarine commanders are issued with "
Letters of last resort" written by the Prime Minister containing secret instructions which may or may not give them delegated launch authority.[117]
Under
NATOnuclear weapons sharing, the United States has provided nuclear weapons for Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Turkey to deploy and store.[123] This involves pilots and other staff of the "non-nuclear" NATO states practicing, handling, and delivering the U.S. nuclear bombs, and adapting non-U.S. warplanes to deliver U.S. nuclear bombs. However, since all U.S. nuclear weapons are protected with
Permissive Action Links, the host states cannot easily arm the bombs without authorization codes from the
U.S. Department of Defense.[124] Former Italian President
Francesco Cossiga acknowledged the presence of U.S. nuclear weapons in Italy.[125] U.S. nuclear weapons were also deployed in
Canada as well as
Greece from 1963. However, the United States withdrew three of the four nuclear-capable weapons systems from Canada by 1972, the fourth by 1984, and all nuclear-capable weapons systems from Greece by 2001.[126][127] As of April 2019[update], the United States maintained around 100 nuclear weapons in Europe, as reflected in the accompanying table.[122]
Since June 2023[update],[128] the leaders of Russia and Belarus have claimed that a "number of"[129] nuclear weapons are located on Belarusian territory while remaining in Russian possession.[128] Sources hostile to these countries have confirmed that nuclear warheads have been delivered to Belarus, but claim that the first transfers were instead made in August 2023.[130] Russia's stated intention is to provide Belarus with two delivery systems: dual-capable
Iskander-M missile systems and necessary training and modifications for Belarusian
Su-25 aircraft to carry nuclear weapons.[131]
The deployment of Russian weapons to Belarus was framed by Russian President
Vladimir Putin as being equivalent to the deployments of American nuclear weapons to NATO Allies in Europe under international law.[129]
Criticism of nuclear weapons sharing
Members of the
Non-Aligned Movement have called on all countries to "refrain from nuclear sharing for military purposes under any kind of security arrangements."[132] The Institute of Strategic Studies Islamabad (ISSI) has criticized the arrangement for allegedly violating Articles I and II of the NPT, arguing that "these Articles do not permit the NWS to delegate the control of their nuclear weapons directly or indirectly to others."[133] NATO has argued that the weapons' sharing is compliant with the NPT because "the U.S. nuclear weapons based in Europe are in the sole possession and under constant and complete custody and control of the United States."[134]
States formerly possessing nuclear weapons
Nuclear weapons have been present in many nations, often as staging grounds under control of other powers. However, in only one instance has a nation given up nuclear weapons after being in full control of them. The
fall of the Soviet Union left several
former Soviet republics in physical possession of nuclear weapons, although not operational control which was dependent on Russian-controlled electronic
Permissive Action Links and the Russian command and control system.[135][136] Of these, Kazakhstan and Ukraine continue to have neither their own nuclear weapons nor another state's nuclear weapons stationed in their territory whereas Belarus does again claim to have Russian-owned nuclear weapons stationed on its territory since 2023.
South Africa produced six nuclear weapons in the 1980s, but dismantled them in the early 1990s.
In 1979, there was a detection of a putative covert nuclear test in the
Indian Ocean, called the
Vela incident. It has long been speculated that it was a test by Israel, in collaboration with and with the support of South Africa, though this has never been confirmed. South Africa could not have constructed such a nuclear bomb by itself until November 1979, two months after the "double flash" incident.[138]
South Africa acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1991.[139][140]
Kazakhstan had 1,400 Soviet-era nuclear weapons on its territory and transferred them all to Russia by 1995, after Kazakhstan acceded to the NPT.[141]
Ukraine had as many as 3,000 nuclear weapons deployed on its territory when it became independent from the Soviet Union in 1991, equivalent to the third-largest nuclear arsenal in the world.[citation needed] At the time Ukraine acceded to the NPT in December 1994, Ukraine had agreed to dispose of all nuclear weapons within its territory. The warheads were removed from Ukraine by 1996 and disassembled in Russia.[142] Despite Russia's subsequent and internationally disputed
annexation of Crimea in 2014, Ukraine reaffirmed its 1994 decision to accede to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear-weapon state.[143]
Belarus, which since 2023 has resumed hosting Russian nuclear weapons, also had single warhead missiles stationed on its territory into the 1990s while a constituent of the Soviet Union. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, 81 single warhead missiles were stationed on newly Belarusian territory, but were all transferred to Russia by 1996. Belarus was a member of the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) from May 1992[144] through February 2022, when it held a
constitutional referendum resulting in the cessation of its non-nuclear status.[145]
Taiwan was developing capacities to construct nuclear weapons up until the 1970s. During that time the United States stationed some of its arsenal in Taiwan.
^Estimates from the
Federation of American Scientists. The latest update was in January 2023. "Deployed" indicates the total of deployed strategic and non-strategic warheads. Because the number of non-strategic warheads is unknown for many countries, this number should be taken as a minimum. When a range of weapons is given (e.g., 0–10), it generally indicates that the estimate is being made on the amount of fissile material that has likely been produced, and the amount of fissile material needed per warhead depends on estimates of a country's proficiency at nuclear weapon design.
^See also
UK Trident programme. From the 1960s until the 1990s, the United Kingdom's
Royal Air Force maintained the independent capability to deliver nuclear weapons via its
V bomber fleet.
^See also
Force de dissuasion. France formerly possessed a nuclear triad until 1996, when its land-based arsenal was retired.
^"Israel". Nuclear Threat Initiative. May 2015.
Archived from the original on 16 January 2017. Retrieved 16 January 2017. While experts generally agree that Israel possesses nuclear weapons, no such current open source consensus exists on the status of Israel's offensive chemical or biological weapons programs.
^There are a wide range of estimates as to the size of the Israeli nuclear arsenal. For a compiled list of estimates, see
Avner Cohen, The Worst-Kept Secret: Israel's bargain with the Bomb (Columbia University Press, 2010), Table 1, page xxvii and page 82.
^The Long Shadow: Nuclear Weapons and Security in 21st Century Asia by Muthiah Alagappa (NUS Press, 2009), page 169: "China has developed strategic nuclear forces made up of land-based missiles, submarine-launched missiles, and bombers. Within this triad, China has also developed weapons of different ranges, capabilities, and survivability."
^Farr, Warner D (September 1999), The Third Temple's holy of holies: Israel's nuclear weapons, The Counterproliferation Papers, Future Warfare Series 2, USAF Counterproliferation Center, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, retrieved 2 July 2006.
^*Hersh, Seymour (1991). The Samson option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy. Random House.
ISBN978-0-394-57006-8., page 271
^An Atlas of Middle Eastern Affairs By Ewan W. Anderson, Liam D. Anderson, (Routledge 2013), page 233: "In terms of delivery systems, there is strong evidence that Israel now possesses all three elements of the nuclear triad."
^Stephen I. Schwartz, ed., Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940 (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998).
^Gross, Daniel A. (2016).
"An Aging Army". Distillations. Vol. 2, no. 1. pp. 26–36.
Archived from the original on 20 March 2018. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
^
abRobert S. Norris and Hans M. Kristensen, "
Global nuclear stockpiles, 1945–2006," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 62, no. 4 (July/August 2006), 64–66...
^Holloway, David (1994). Stalin and the bomb: The Soviet Union and atomic energy, 1939–1956. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
ISBN978-0-300-06056-0.
^Gowing, Margaret (1974). Independence and deterrence: Britain and atomic energy, 1945–1952. London: Macmillan.
ISBN978-0-333-15781-7.
^Arnold, Lorna (2001). Britain and the H-bomb. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
ISBN978-0-312-23518-5.
^"India and Pakistan". Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
^Sublettle, Carey (15 October 1965).
"Historical Background: Zulfikar Ali Bhutto". Nuclear weapons archives. Federation of American Scientists (FAS).
Archived from the original on 16 December 2013. Retrieved 19 August 2018.
^There are a wide range of estimates as to the size of the Israeli nuclear arsenal. For a compiled list of estimates, see
Avner Cohen, The Worst-Kept Secret: Israel's bargain with the Bomb (Columbia University Press, 2010), Table 1, page xxvii and page 82.
^
abHans M. Kristensen; Matt Korda (26 January 2021).
"United States nuclear weapons, 2021". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 77 (1): 43–63.
doi:
10.1080/00963402.2020.1859865.
ISSN0096-3402.
WikidataQ105699219. About 100 of these (versions −3 and −4) are thought to be deployed at six bases in five European countries: Aviano and Ghedi in Italy; Büchel in Germany; Incirlik in Turkey; Kleine Brogel in Belgium; and Volkel in the Netherlands. This number has declined since 2009 partly due to reduction of operational storage capacity at Aviano and Incirlik (Kristensen 2015, 2019c). ... Concerns were raised about the security of the nuclear weapons at the Incirlik base during the failed coup attempt in Turkey in July 2016, and the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee for Europe stated in September 2020 that "our presence, quite honestly, in Turkey is certainly threatened," and further noted that "we don't know what's going to happen to Incirlik" (Gehrke 2020). Despite rumors in late 2017 that the weapons had been "quietly removed" (Hammond 2017), reports in 2019 that US officials had reviewed emergency nuclear weapons evacuation plans (Sanger 2019) indicated that that there were still weapons present at the base. The numbers appear to have been reduced, however, from up to 50 to approximately 20.
^"Nuclear Command and Control"(PDF). Security Engineering: A Guide to Building Dependable Distributed Systems. Ross Anderson, University of Cambridge Computing Laboratory. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
^Lewis, Jeffrey (3 December 2015).
"Revisiting South Africa's Bomb". Arms Control Wonk. Leading Voice on Arms Control, Disarmament and Non-Proliferation.
Archived from the original on 6 December 2015. Retrieved 6 December 2015.
^{{cite webhttps://newsinfo.inquirer.net/58985/us-stored-nukes-in-philippines-under-marcos%E2%80%93bayan#:~:text=Citing%20a%20declassified%20%E2%80%9CTop%20Secret,%E2%80%94as%20early%20as%201966.%E2%80%9D|title=US stored nukes in Philippines under Marcos–Bayan|access-date=2024-04-15}}
Farr, Warner D. (September 1999),
The Third Temple's holy of holies: Israel's nuclear weapons, The Counterproliferation Papers, Future Warfare Series, vol. 2, USAF Counterproliferation Center, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, retrieved 2 July 2006.