Country spanning Europe and Asia
Russia ,
[b] or the Russian Federation ,
[c] is a country spanning
Eastern Europe and
North Asia . It is the
largest country in the world by area , extending across
eleven time zones and sharing
land borders with fourteen countries .
[d] It is the
world's ninth-most populous country and
Europe's most populous country . Russia is a highly urbanized country consisting of
16 population centers with over million inhabitants . Its capital as well as
its largest city is
Moscow .
Saint Petersburg is Russia's second-largest city and
cultural capital .
The
East Slavs emerged as a recognised group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries CE. The first East Slavic state,
Kievan Rus' , arose in the 9th century, and in 988, it adopted
Orthodox Christianity from the
Byzantine Empire . Rus' ultimately disintegrated, with the
Grand Duchy of Moscow growing to become the
Tsardom of Russia . By the early 18th century, Russia had vastly expanded through conquest, annexation, and the efforts of
Russian explorers , developing into the
Russian Empire , which remains the
third-largest empire in history . However, with the
Russian Revolution in 1917, Russia's monarchic rule
was abolished and eventually replaced by the
Russian SFSR —the world's first constitutionally
socialist state . Following the
Russian Civil War , the Russian SFSR established the
Soviet Union with three other
Soviet republics , within which it was the largest and principal constituent. At the
expense of millions of lives , the Soviet Union underwent
rapid industrialisation in the 1930s and later played a decisive role for the
Allies in World War II by leading large-scale efforts on the
Eastern Front . With the onset of the
Cold War , it competed with the
United States for global ideological influence. The Soviet era of the 20th century saw some of the
most significant Russian technological achievements , including the
first human-made satellite and the
first human expedition into outer space .
In 1991, the Russian SFSR emerged from the
dissolution of the Soviet Union as the independent Russian Federation. A new
constitution was adopted, which established a
federal
semi-presidential system . Since the turn of the century, Russia's political system has been dominated by
Vladimir Putin , under whom the country has experienced
democratic backsliding and a shift towards
authoritarianism .
Russia has been militarily involved in a number of
conflicts in former Soviet states and other countries , including its
war with Georgia in 2008 and
annexation of Crimea in 2014 from neighbouring
Ukraine , followed by the further annexation of
four other regions in 2022 during
an ongoing invasion .
Internationally, Russia
ranks among the lowest in measurements of
democracy ,
human rights and
freedom of the press ; the country also has
high levels of perceived corruption .
Russia's advanced economy ranks among the
largest in the world , relying on Its vast mineral and energy resources; the world's second largest for
oil production and
natural gas production . Russia possesses the
largest stockpile of nuclear weapons and has the
third-highest military expenditure . The country is a
permanent member of the United Nations Security Council ; a member state of the
G20 ,
SCO ,
BRICS ,
APEC ,
OSCE , and
WTO ; and the leading member state of post-Soviet organisations such as
CIS ,
CSTO , and
EAEU/EEU . Russia is home to
30 UNESCO World Heritage Sites .
Etymology
According to the
Oxford English Dictionary , the English name Russia first appeared in the 14th century, borrowed from
Medieval Latin : Russia , used in the 11th century and frequently in 12th-century British sources, in turn derived from Russi , 'the Russians' and the suffix
-ia .
[21]
[22] In modern historiography, this state is usually denoted as
Kievan Rus' after its capital city.
[23] Another Medieval Latin name for Rus' was
Ruthenia .
[24]
In Russian, the current name of the country, Россия (Rossiya ), comes from the
Byzantine Greek name for Rus', Ρωσία (Rosía ).
[25] A new form of the name Rus' , Росия (Rosiya ), was borrowed from the Greek term and first attested in 1387.
[26] [
failed verification ] The name Rossiia appeared in Russian sources in the late 15th century, but until the end of the 17th century the country was more often referred to by its inhabitants as Rus' , the Russian land (Russkaia zemlia ), or the Muscovite state (Moskovskoe gosudarstvo ), among other variations.
[27]
[28]
[29] In 1721, Peter the Great changed the name of the state from
Tsardom of Russia (
Russian : Русское царство ,
romanized : Russkoye tsarstvo ) or Tsardom of Muscovy (
Russian : Московское царство ,
romanized : Moskovskoye tsarstvo )
[30]
[31] to
Russian Empire (Rossiiskaia imperiia ).
[27]
[29]
There are several words in Russian which translate to "Russians" in English. The noun and adjective русский , russkiy refers to ethnic
Russians . The adjective российский , rossiiskiy denotes
Russian citizens regardless of ethnicity. The same applies to the more recently coined noun россиянин , rossiianyn , "Russian" in the sense of citizen of the Russian state.
[28]
[32]
According to the
Primary Chronicle , the word Rus' is derived from the
Rus' people , who were a
Swedish tribe, and where the three original members of the
Rurikid dynasty came from.
[33] The
Finnish word for Swedes, ruotsi , has the same origin.
[34]
Later archeological studies mostly confirmed this theory.
[35] [
better source needed ]
History
Early history
The first human settlement on Russia dates back to the
Oldowan period in the early
Lower Paleolithic . About 2 million years ago, representatives of
Homo erectus migrated to the
Taman Peninsula in southern Russia.
[36]
Flint tools, some 1.5 million years old, have been discovered in the
North Caucasus .
[37]
Radiocarbon dated specimens from
Denisova Cave in the
Altai Mountains estimate the oldest
Denisovan specimen lived 195–122,700 years ago.
[38] Fossils of
Denny , an
archaic human hybrid that was half
Neanderthal and half Denisovan, and lived some 90,000 years ago, was also found within the latter cave.
[39] Russia was home to some of the last surviving Neanderthals, from about 45,000 years ago, found in
Mezmaiskaya cave .
[40]
The first trace of an
early modern human in Russia dates back to 45,000 years, in
Western Siberia .
[41] The discovery of high concentration cultural remains of
anatomically modern humans , from at least 40,000 years ago, was found at
Kostyonki–Borshchyovo ,
[42] and at
Sungir , dating back to 34,600 years ago—both in
western Russia .
[43] Humans reached
Arctic Russia at least 40,000 years ago, in
Mamontovaya Kurya .
[44]
Ancient North Eurasian populations from Siberia genetically similar to
Mal'ta–Buret' culture and
Afontova Gora were an important genetic contributor to
Ancient Native Americans and
Eastern Hunter-Gatherers .
[45]
Bronze Age spread of
Yamnaya
Steppe pastoralist ancestry between 3300 and 1500 BC,
[46] including the
Afanasievo culture of southern Siberia
The
Kurgan hypothesis places the Volga-Dnieper region of southern Russia and
Ukraine as the
urheimat of the
Proto-Indo-Europeans .
[47] Early
Indo-European migrations from the
Pontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and Russia spread
Yamnaya ancestry and
Indo-European languages across large parts of Eurasia.
[48]
[49]
Nomadic pastoralism developed in the Pontic–Caspian steppe beginning in the
Chalcolithic .
[50] Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in places such as
Ipatovo ,
[50]
Sintashta ,
[51]
Arkaim ,
[52] and
Pazyryk ,
[53] which bear the earliest known traces of
horses in warfare .
[51] The genetic makeup of speakers of the
Uralic language family in northern Europe was shaped by migration from
Siberia that began at least 3,500 years ago.
[54]
In the 3rd to 4th centuries CE, the
Gothic kingdom of
Oium existed in southern Russia, which was later overrun by
Huns . Between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE, the
Bosporan Kingdom , which was a Hellenistic
polity that succeeded the Greek colonies,
[55] was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the Huns and
Eurasian Avars .
[56] The
Khazars , who were of
Turkic origin , ruled the steppes between the Caucasus in the south, to the east past the Volga river basin, and west as far as Kyiv on the Dnieper river until the 10th century.
[57] After them came the
Pechenegs who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken over by the
Cumans and the
Kipchaks .
[58]
The ancestors of
Russians are among the
Slavic tribes that separated from the Proto-Indo-Europeans, who appeared in the northeastern part of Europe
c. 1500 years ago.
[59] The East Slavs gradually settled western Russia (approximately between modern
Moscow and
Saint-Petersburg ) in two waves: one moving from
Kiev towards present-day
Suzdal and
Murom and another from
Polotsk towards
Novgorod and
Rostov .
[60] Prior to Slavic migration, that territory was populated by
Finno-Ugrian peoples. From the 7th century onwards, the incoming East Slavs slowly assimilated the native Finno-Ugrians.
[61]
[62]
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus' after the
Council of Liubech in 1097
The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of
Varangians , the
Vikings who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic
to the Black and
Caspian Seas. According to the
Primary Chronicle , a Varangian from the
Rus' people , named
Rurik , was elected ruler of
Novgorod in 862. In 882, his successor
Oleg ventured south and conquered
Kiev , which had been previously paying tribute to the
Khazars .
[61] Rurik's son
Igor and Igor's son
Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local
East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar Khaganate,
[63] and launched several military expeditions to
Byzantium and
Persia .
[64]
[65]
In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The reigns of
Vladimir the Great (980–1015) and his son
Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) constitute the
Golden Age of Kiev, which saw
the acceptance of Orthodox Christianity from
Byzantium , and the creation of the first East Slavic written
legal code , the
Russkaya Pravda .
[61] The age of
feudalism and decentralisation had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the
Rurik dynasty that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of
Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, the
Novgorod Republic in the north, and
Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west.
[61] By the 12th century, Kiev lost its pre-eminence and Kievan Rus' had fragmented into different principalities.
[66] Prince
Andrey Bogolyubsky sacked Kiev in 1169 and made
Vladimir his base,
[66] leading to political power being shifted to the north-east.
[61]
Led by Prince
Alexander Nevsky , Novgorodians repelled the invading
Swedes in the
Battle of the Neva in 1240,
[67] as well as the
Germanic crusaders in the
Battle on the Ice in 1242.
[68]
Kievan Rus' finally fell to the
Mongol invasion of 1237–1240, which resulted in the
sacking of Kiev and other cities, as well as the death of a major part of the population.
[61] The invaders, later known as
Tatars , formed the state of the
Golden Horde , which ruled over Russia for the next two centuries.
[69] Only the Novgorod Republic escaped foreign occupation after it agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols.
[61] Galicia-Volhynia would later be absorbed by
Lithuania and
Poland , while the Novgorod Republic continued to prosper in the north. In the northeast, the Byzantine-Slavic traditions of Kievan Rus' were adapted to form the Russian autocratic state.
[61]
Grand Duchy of Moscow
Sergius of Radonezh blessing
Dmitry Donskoy in
Trinity Sergius Lavra , before the
Battle of Kulikovo , depicted in a painting by
Ernst Lissner
The destruction of Kievan Rus' saw the eventual rise of the
Grand Duchy of Moscow , initially a part of
Vladimir-Suzdal .
[70] : 11–20 While still under the domain of the
Mongol -
Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the region in the early 14th century,
[71] gradually becoming the leading force in the "gathering of the Russian lands".
[72] When the seat of the Metropolitan of the
Russian Orthodox Church moved to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased.
[73] Moscow's last rival, the
Novgorod Republic , prospered as the chief
fur trade centre and the easternmost port of the
Hanseatic League .
[74]
Led by Prince
Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow, the united army of Russian principalities inflicted
a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the
Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.
[61] Moscow gradually absorbed its parent duchy and surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as
Tver and
Novgorod .
[72]
Ivan III ("the Great") threw off the control of the
Golden Horde and consolidated the whole of northern Rus' under Moscow's dominion, and was the first Russian ruler to take the title "Grand Duke of all Rus'". After the
fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow
claimed succession to the legacy of the
Eastern Roman Empire . Ivan III married
Sophia Palaiologina , the niece of the last
Byzantine emperor
Constantine XI , and made the Byzantine
double-headed eagle his own, and eventually Russia's, coat-of-arms.
[72]
Vasili III united all of Russia by annexing the last few independent
Russian states in the early 16th century.
[75]
Tsardom of Russia
Ivan IV was the
Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547, then
Tsar of Russia until his death in 1584.
In development of the
Third Rome ideas, the grand duke
Ivan IV ("the Terrible") was officially crowned the first
tsar of Russia in 1547. The tsar
promulgated a new code of laws (
Sudebnik of 1550 ), established the first Russian feudal representative body (the
Zemsky Sobor ), revamped the military, curbed the influence of the clergy, and reorganised local government.
[72] During his long reign, Ivan nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates:
Kazan and
Astrakhan along the
Volga ,
[76] and the
Khanate of Sibir in southwestern Siberia. Ultimately, by the end of the 16th century, Russia expanded east of the
Ural Mountains .
[77] However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful
Livonian War against the coalition of the
Kingdom of Poland and the
Grand Duchy of Lithuania (later the united
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ), the
Kingdom of Sweden , and
Denmark–Norway for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.
[78] In 1572, an invading army of
Crimean Tatars were
thoroughly defeated in the crucial
Battle of Molodi .
[79]
The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient
Rurik dynasty in 1598, and in combination with the disastrous
famine of 1601–1603 , led to a civil war, the rule of pretenders, and foreign intervention during the
Time of Troubles in the early 17th century.
[80] The
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , taking advantage, occupied parts of Russia, extending into the capital Moscow.
[81] In 1612, the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by merchant
Kuzma Minin and prince
Dmitry Pozharsky .
[82] The
Romanov dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.
[83]
Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of the
Cossacks .
[84] In 1654, the Ukrainian leader,
Bohdan Khmelnytsky , offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian tsar,
Alexis ; whose acceptance of this offer led to another
Russo-Polish War . Ultimately, Ukraine was split along the
Dnieper , leaving the eastern part, (
Left-bank Ukraine and
Kiev ) under Russian rule.
[85] In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of vast Siberia continued, hunting for valuable furs and ivory.
Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the
Siberian River Routes , and by the mid-17th century, there were Russian settlements in eastern Siberia, on the
Chukchi Peninsula , along the
Amur River , and on the coast of the Pacific Ocean.
[84] In 1648,
Semyon Dezhnyov became the first European to navigate through the
Bering Strait .
[86]
Imperial Russia
Expansion and
territorial evolution of Russia from the
coronation of
Ivan IV to the death of
Peter I
Under
Peter the Great , Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721, and established itself as one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the
Great Northern War (1700–1721), securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade. In 1703, on the Baltic Sea, Peter founded
Saint Petersburg as Russia's new capital. Throughout his rule,
sweeping reforms were made , which brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia.
[87] He was succeeded by
Catherine I (1725–1727), followed by
Peter II (1727–1730), and
Anna . The reign of Peter I's daughter
Elizabeth in 1741–1762 saw Russia's participation in the
Seven Years' War (1756–1763). During the conflict, Russian troops overran
East Prussia , reaching Berlin.
[88] However, upon Elizabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the
Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian
Peter III of Russia .
[89]
Catherine II ("the Great"), who ruled in 1762–1796, presided over the
Russian Age of Enlightenment . She extended Russian political control over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and
annexed most of its territories into Russia , making it the most populous country in Europe.
[90] In the south, after the successful
Russo-Turkish Wars against the
Ottoman Empire , Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, by dissolving the
Crimean Khanate , and
annexing Crimea .
[91] As a result of victories over
Qajar Iran through the
Russo-Persian Wars , by the first half of the 19th century, Russia also
conquered the Caucasus .
[92] Catherine's successor, her son
Paul , was
unstable and focused predominantly on domestic issues .
[93] Following his short reign, Catherine's strategy was continued with
Alexander I's (1801–1825)
wresting of Finland from the weakened Sweden in 1809,
[94] and of
Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812.
[95] In North America, the Russians became the first Europeans to
reach and colonise Alaska .
[96] In 1803–1806, the
first Russian circumnavigation was made.
[97] In 1820,
a Russian expedition discovered the continent of
Antarctica .
[98]
Great power and development of society, sciences and arts
During the
Napoleonic Wars , Russia joined alliances with various European powers, and fought against France. The
French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 reached Moscow, but eventually failed as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold
Russian winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which the pan-European
Grande Armée faced utter destruction. Led by
Mikhail Kutuzov and
Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly , the
Imperial Russian Army ousted Napoleon and drove throughout Europe in the
War of the Sixth Coalition , ultimately entering Paris.
[99]
Alexander I controlled Russia's delegation at the
Congress of Vienna , which defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.
[100]
Napoleon 's retreat from Moscow by
Albrecht Adam (1851)
The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia, and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive
Decembrist revolt of 1825.
[101] At the end of the conservative reign of
Nicholas I (1825–1855), a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe, was disrupted by defeat in the
Crimean War .
[102]
Great liberal reforms and capitalism
Nicholas's successor
Alexander II (1855–1881) enacted significant changes throughout the country, including the
emancipation reform of 1861 .
[103] These reforms spurred industrialisation, and modernised the Imperial Russian Army, which liberated much of the
Balkans from Ottoman rule in the aftermath of the
1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War .
[104] During most of the 19th and early 20th century, Russia and
Britain colluded over
Afghanistan and its neighbouring territories in
Central and South Asia; the rivalry between the two major European empires came to be known as the
Great Game .
[105]
The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was
assassinated in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists.
[106] The reign of his son
Alexander III (1881–1894) was less liberal but more peaceful.
[107]
Constitutional monarchy and World War
Under last Russian emperor,
Nicholas II (1894–1917), the
Revolution of 1905 was triggered by the failure of the humiliating
Russo-Japanese War .
[108] The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms (
Russian Constitution of 1906 ), including granting
freedoms of speech and
assembly , the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the
State Duma .
[109]
Revolution and civil war
Emperor
Nicholas II of Russia and the
Romanovs were
executed by the Bolsheviks in 1918.
In 1914,
Russia entered World War I in response to
Austria-Hungary 's declaration of war on Russia's ally
Serbia ,
[110] and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its
Triple Entente allies.
[111] In 1916, the
Brusilov Offensive of the Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed the
Austro-Hungarian Army .
[112] However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war,
high casualties , and rumors of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the
Russian Revolution of 1917, carried out in two major acts.
[113] In early 1917,
Nicholas II was
forced to abdicate ; he and his family were imprisoned and
later executed during the
Russian Civil War .
[114] The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the
Provisional Government ,
[115] and proclaimed the
Russian Republic . On 19 January [
O.S. 6 January], 1918, the
Russian Constituent Assembly declared Russia a democratic federal republic (thus ratifying the Provisional Government's decision). The next day the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the
All-Russian Central Executive Committee .
[113]
An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the
Petrograd Soviet , wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called
soviets . The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country instead of resolving it, and eventually, the
October Revolution , led by
Bolshevik leader
Vladimir Lenin , overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the soviets, leading to the creation of the world's first
socialist state .
[113] The
Russian Civil War broke out between the
anti-communist
White movement and the Bolsheviks with its
Red Army .
[116] In the aftermath of signing the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with the
Central Powers of
World War I ; Bolshevist Russia surrendered most of its western territories, which hosted 34% of its population, 54% of its industries, 32% of its agricultural land, and roughly 90% of its coal mines.
[117]
Vladimir Lenin and
Leon Trotsky during a 1920 speech in Moscow
The
Allied powers launched an unsuccessful
military intervention in support of anti-communist forces.
[118] In the meantime, both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the
Red Terror and
White Terror .
[119] By the end of the violent civil war, Russia's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged, and as many as 10 million perished during the war, mostly civilians.
[120] Millions became
White émigrés ,
[121] and the
Russian famine of 1921–1922 claimed up to five million victims.
[122]
Soviet Union
Location of the
Russian SFSR (red) within the
Soviet Union in 1936
Command economy and Soviet society
On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides
formed the
Soviet Union , by joining the
Russian SFSR into a single state with the
Byelorussian ,
Transcaucasian , and
Ukrainian republics.
[123] Eventually internal border changes and annexations during World War II created a union of
15 republics ; the largest in size and population being the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union politically, culturally, and economically.
[124]
Following
Lenin's death in 1924, a
troika was designated to take charge. Eventually
Joseph Stalin , the
General Secretary of the Communist Party , managed to suppress all opposition factions and consolidate power in his hands to become the country's dictator by the 1930s.
[125]
Leon Trotsky , the main proponent of
world revolution , was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929,
[126] and Stalin's idea of
Socialism in One Country became the official line.
[127] The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the
Great Purge .
[128]
Stalinism and violent modernization
Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a
command economy ,
industrialisation of the largely rural country , and
collectivisation of
its agriculture . During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent to
penal labour camps , including many political convicts for their suspected or real opposition to Stalin's rule;
[129] and millions were
deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.
[130] The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought,
[131] led to the
Soviet famine of 1932–1933 ; which killed up to 8.7 million, 3.3 million of them in the Russian SFSR.
[132] The Soviet Union, ultimately, made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse within a short span of time.
[133]
World War II and United Nations
The
Battle of Stalingrad , the largest and bloodiest battle in the history of warfare, ended in 1943 with a decisive Soviet victory against the
German army .
The Soviet Union entered
World War II on 17 September 1939 with its
invasion of Poland ,
[134] in accordance with a secret protocol within the
Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with
Nazi Germany .
[135] The Soviet Union later
invaded Finland ,
[136] and
occupied and annexed the Baltic states ,
[137] as well as
parts of Romania .
[138] : 91–95 On 22 June 1941, Germany
invaded the Soviet Union ,
[139] opening the
Eastern Front , the largest theater of World War II.
[140] : 7
Eventually, some 5 million
Red Army troops were captured by the Nazis;
[141] : 272 the latter deliberately
starved to death or otherwise killed 3.3 million Soviet
POWs , and a vast number of civilians, as the "
Hunger Plan " sought to fulfil
Generalplan Ost .
[142] : 175–186 Although the
Wehrmacht had considerable early success, their attack was halted in the
Battle of Moscow .
[143] Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the
Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943,
[144] and then in the
Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943.
[145] Another German failure was the
Siege of Leningrad , in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered.
[146] Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–1945 and
captured Berlin in May 1945.
[147] In August 1945, the Red Army
invaded Manchuria and
ousted the Japanese from Northeast Asia, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.
[148]
The 1941–1945 period of World War II is known in Russia as the
Great Patriotic War .
[149] The Soviet Union, along with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II, and later became the
Four Policemen , which was the foundation of the
United Nations Security Council .
[150] : 27 During the war,
Soviet civilian and military death were about 26–27 million ,
[151] accounting for about half of all
World War II casualties .
[152] : 295 The
Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, which caused the
Soviet famine of 1946–1947 .
[153] However, at the expense of a large sacrifice, the Soviet Union emerged as a global superpower.
[154]
Superpower and Cold War
The "
Big Three " at the
Yalta Conference in February 1945,
Winston Churchill ,
Franklin D. Roosevelt and
Joseph Stalin
After World War II, according to the
Potsdam Conference , the
Red Army occupied parts of Eastern and Central Europe, including
East Germany and the eastern regions of
Austria .
[155] Dependent communist governments were installed in the
Eastern Bloc satellite states.
[156] After becoming the world's second
nuclear power ,
[157] the Soviet Union established the
Warsaw Pact alliance,
[158] and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the
Cold War , with the rivalling United States and
NATO .
[159]
Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development
After
Stalin's death in 1953 and a short period of
collective rule , the new leader
Nikita Khrushchev denounced
Stalin and launched the policy of
de-Stalinization , releasing many political prisoners from the
Gulag labour camps.
[160] The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the
Khrushchev Thaw .
[161] At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its peak when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the United States
Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet
missiles in Cuba .
[162]
In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial
satellite ,
Sputnik 1 , thus starting the
Space Age .
[163] Russian
cosmonaut
Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the
Vostok 1 crewed spacecraft on
12 April 1961 .
[164]
Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation
Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of
collective rule ensued, until
Leonid Brezhnev became the leader. The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as the
Era of Stagnation . The 1965
Kosygin reform aimed for partial
decentralisation of the
Soviet economy .
[165] In 1979, after a
communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the country, ultimately starting the
Soviet–Afghan War .
[166] In May 1988, the
Soviets started to withdraw from Afghanistan , due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.
[167]
Mikhail Gorbachev in one-to-one discussions with
Ronald Reagan in the
Reykjavík Summit , 1986
Perestroika, democratization and Russian sovereignty
From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader
Mikhail Gorbachev , who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of
glasnost (openness) and
perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to end the
period of economic stagnation and to
democratise the government .
[168] This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country.
[169] Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's second-largest, but during its final years, it went into a crisis.
[170]
By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the
Baltic states chose to secede from the Soviet Union.
[171] On 17 March, a
referendum was held, in which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of changing the Soviet Union into a
renewed federation .
[172] In June 1991,
Boris Yeltsin became the first directly elected
president in Russian history when he was
elected president of the Russian SFSR.
[173] In August 1991,
a coup d'état attempt by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
[174] On 25 December 1991, following the
dissolution of the Soviet Union , along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other
post-Soviet states emerged.
[175]
Independent Russian Federation
Vladimir Putin takes the oath of office as president on his
first inauguration , with
Boris Yeltsin looking over, 2000.
Transition to a market economy and political crises
The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and prolonged depression. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including
privatisation and
market and trade liberalisation were undertaken, including radical changes along the lines of "
shock therapy ".
[176] The privatisation largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government, which led to the rise of
Russian oligarchs .
[177] Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous
capital flight .
[178] The depression of the economy led to the collapse of social services—the
birth rate plummeted while the
death rate skyrocketed,
[179]
[180] and millions plunged into poverty;
[181] while extreme corruption,
[182] as well as criminal gangs and organised crime rose significantly.
[183]
In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in
a constitutional crisis which ended violently through military force. During the crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over 100 people were killed.
[184]
Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilization
In December, a
referendum was held and approved, which introduced a new constitution, giving the president enormous powers.
[185] The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the
North Caucasus , both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist
Islamist insurrections.
[186] From the time
Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an
intermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel groups and Russian forces.
[187]
Terrorist attacks against civilians were carried out by Chechen separatists, claiming the lives of thousands of Russian civilians.
[e]
[188]
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia assumed responsibility for settling the latter's external debts.
[189] In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the rouble.
[190] High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the
1998 Russian financial crisis , which resulted in a further GDP decline.
[191]
Movement towards a modernized economy, political centralization and democratic backsliding
On 31 December 1999, president Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned,
[192] handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister and his chosen successor,
Vladimir Putin .
[193] Putin then won the
2000 presidential election ,
[194] and defeated the Chechen insurgency in the
Second Chechen War .
[195]
Putin won a
second presidential term in 2004.
[196]
High oil prices and a rise in foreign investment saw the
Russian economy and living standards improve significantly.
[197] Putin's rule increased stability, while transforming Russia into an
authoritarian state .
[198] In 2008, Putin took the post of prime minister, while
Dmitry Medvedev was
elected president for one term, to hold onto power despite legal
term limits ;
[199] this period has been described as a "
tandemocracy ".
[200]
Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine as of 30 September 2022 at the time their
annexation was declared
Following a
diplomatic crisis with neighbouring
Georgia , the
Russo-Georgian War took place during 1–12 August 2008, resulting in Russia recognising two separatist states in the territories that it
occupies in Georgia .
[201] It was the first
European war of the 21st century.
[202]
Invasion of Ukraine
In early 2014, following
a revolution in Ukraine, Russia
occupied and annexed Crimea from neighbouring Ukraine following a
disputed referendum ,
[203] then used Russian mercenaries and military forces, supported by local separatist militias, to start a
war in the Donbas region of eastern Ukraine where most of the inhabitants wanted to stay in Ukraine.
[204] In a major escalation of the conflict, Russia launched a full-scale
invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022.
[205] The invasion marked the largest
conventional war in Europe since World War II,
[206] and was met with
international condemnation ,
[207] as well as
expanded sanctions against Russia.
[208] As a result, Russia was expelled from the
Council of Europe in March,
[209] and was suspended from the
United Nations Human Rights Council in April.
[210] In September, following successful Ukrainian counteroffensives,
[211] Putin announced a "
partial mobilisation ", Russia's first mobilisation since World War II.
[212] By the end of September, Putin proclaimed the
annexation of four Ukrainian regions , the largest annexation in Europe since World War II.
[213] Putin and Russian-installed leaders signed treaties of accession, internationally unrecognized and widely
denounced as illegal , despite the fact that Russian forces have been unable to fully occupy any of the four regions.
[213] A number of supranational and national parliaments passed resolutions declaring Russia to be a
state sponsor of terrorism .
[214] In addition, Russia was declared a terrorist state by Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia.
[215] Hundreds of thousands are
estimated to have been killed as a result of the invasion.
[216]
[217]
[218] The war in Ukraine has further exacerbated Russia's
demographic crisis .
[219]
In June 2023, the
Wagner Group , a private military contractor fighting for Russia in Ukraine, declared an
open rebellion against the Russian Ministry of Defense , capturing
Rostov-on-Don , before beginning a march on Moscow. However, after negotiations between Wagner and the Belarusian government, the rebellion was called off.
[220]
[221]
Geography
Topographic map of Russia
Russia's vast landmass stretches over the easternmost part of Europe and the northernmost part of Asia.
[222] It spans the northernmost edge of
Eurasia ; and has the world's
fourth-longest coastline , of over 37,653 km (23,396 mi).
[f]
[224] Russia lies between latitudes
41° and
82° N , and longitudes
19° E and
169° W , extending some 9,000 km (5,600 mi) east to west, and 2,500 to 4,000 km (1,600 to 2,500 mi) north to south.
[225] Russia, by landmass, is larger than three continents,
[g] and has the same surface area as
Pluto .
[226]
Russia has nine major mountain ranges, and they are found along the
southernmost regions , which share a significant portion of the
Caucasus Mountains (containing
Mount Elbrus , which at 5,642 m (18,510 ft) is the
highest peak in Russia and Europe);
[11] the
Altai and
Sayan Mountains in
Siberia ; and in the
East Siberian Mountains and the
Kamchatka Peninsula in the
Russian Far East (containing
Klyuchevskaya Sopka , which at 4,750 m (15,584 ft) is the highest
active volcano in Eurasia).
[227]
[228] The
Ural Mountains , running north to south through the country's west, are rich in mineral resources, and form the
traditional boundary between Europe and Asia .
[229] The
lowest point in Russia and Europe , is situated at the head of the Caspian Sea, where the
Caspian Depression reaches some 29 metres (95.1 ft) below sea level.
[230]
Russia, as one of the world's only three countries
bordering three oceans ,
[222] has links with a great number of seas.
[h]
[231] Its major islands and archipelagos include
Novaya Zemlya ,
Franz Josef Land ,
Severnaya Zemlya , the
New Siberian Islands ,
Wrangel Island , the
Kuril Islands (four of which are
disputed with Japan ), and
Sakhalin .
[232]
[233] The
Diomede Islands , administered by Russia and the United States, are just 3.8 km (2.4 mi) apart;
[234] and
Kunashir Island of the Kuril Islands is merely 20 km (12.4 mi) from
Hokkaido , Japan.
[2]
Russia, home of over 100,000 rivers,
[222] has one of the world's largest surface water resources, with its lakes containing approximately one-quarter of the world's liquid
fresh water .
[228]
Lake Baikal , the largest and most prominent among Russia's fresh water bodies, is the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh water lake, containing over one-fifth of the world's fresh surface water.
[235]
Ladoga and
Onega in
northwestern Russia are two of the
largest lakes in Europe .
[222] Russia is second only to Brazil by
total renewable water resources .
[236] The
Volga in western Russia, widely regarded as Russia's national river, is the
longest river in Europe; and forms the
Volga Delta , the largest
river delta in the continent.
[237] The Siberian rivers of
Ob ,
Yenisey ,
Lena , and
Amur are among the world's
longest rivers .
[238]
Climate
Köppen climate classification of Russia
The size of Russia and the remoteness of many of its areas from the sea result in the dominance of the
humid continental climate throughout most of the country, except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountain ranges in the south and east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the
Indian and Pacific oceans, while the
European Plain spanning its west and north opens it to influence from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans.
[239] Most of northwest Russia and Siberia have a
subarctic climate , with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of northeast Siberia (mostly
Sakha , where the Northern
Pole of Cold is located with the record low temperature of −71.2 °C or −96.2 °F),
[232] and more moderate winters elsewhere. Russia's vast coastline along the Arctic Ocean and the
Russian Arctic islands have a
polar climate .
[239]
The coastal part of
Krasnodar Krai on the Black Sea, most notably
Sochi , and some coastal and interior strips of the
North Caucasus possess a
humid subtropical climate with mild and wet winters.
[239] In many regions of East Siberia and the Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer; while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The westernmost parts of Kaliningrad Oblast and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and the North Caucasus have an
oceanic climate .
[239] The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some southernmost slivers of Siberia, possess a
semi-arid climate .
[240]
Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons, winter and summer; as spring and autumn are usually brief.
[239] The coldest month is January (February on the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia.
[241]
Climate change in Russia is causing more frequent
wildfires ,
[242] and thawing the country's large expanse of
permafrost .
[243]
Biodiversity
Yugyd Va National Park in the
Komi Republic is the largest
national park in Europe.
[229]
Russia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, including
polar deserts ,
tundra , forest tundra,
taiga ,
mixed and broadleaf forest ,
forest steppe ,
steppe , semi-desert, and
subtropics .
[244] About half of Russia's territory is forested,
[11] and it has the world's largest area of forest,
[245] which sequester some of the world's highest amounts of
carbon dioxide .
[245]
[246]
Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species of
vascular plants , 2,200 species of
bryophytes , about 3,000 species of
lichens , 7,000–9,000 species of
algae , and 20,000–25,000 species of fungi. Russian
fauna is composed of
320 species of
mammals , over
732 species of birds, 75 species of reptiles, about 30 species of
amphibians ,
343 species of
freshwater fish (high
endemism ), approximately 1,500 species of
saltwater fishes , 9 species of
cyclostomata , and approximately 100–150,000
invertebrates (high endemism).
[244]
[247] Approximately 1,100 rare and endangered plant and animal species are included in the
Russian Red Data Book .
[244]
Russia's entirely natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country's total area.
[244] They include 45
biosphere reserves ,
[248] 64
national parks , and 101
nature reserves .
[249] Although in decline, the country still has many ecosystems which are still considered
intact forest ; mainly in the northern taiga areas, and the subarctic tundra of Siberia.
[250] Russia had a
Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.02 in 2019, ranking 10th out of 172 countries; and the first ranked major nation globally.
[251]
Government and politics
A chart of the Russian political system
Russia, by 1993 constitution, is a
symmetric federal republic with a
semi-presidential system , wherein the
president is the
head of state ,
[252] and the
prime minister is the
head of government .
[11] It is structured as a
multi-party
representative democracy , with the federal government composed of three branches:
[253]
Legislative: The
bicameral
Federal Assembly of Russia , made up of the 450-member
State Duma and the 170-member
Federation Council ,
[253] adopts
federal law ,
declares war , approves treaties, has the
power of the purse and the power of
impeachment of the president.
[254]
Executive: The president is the
commander-in-chief of the
Armed Forces , and appoints the
Government of Russia (Cabinet) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.
[252] The president may issue
decrees of unlimited scope , so long as they do not contradict the constitution or federal law.
[255]
Judiciary : The
Constitutional Court ,
Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president,
[253] interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem
unconstitutional .
[256]
The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term and may be elected no more than twice.
[257]
[i] Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma).
United Russia is the
dominant
political party in Russia , and has been described as "
big tent " and the "
party of power ".
[259]
[260] Under the
administrations of Vladimir Putin , Russia has experienced
democratic backsliding ,
[261]
[262] and has become an
authoritarian state
[12] under a
dictatorship ,
[9]
[263] with Putin's policies being referred to as
Putinism .
[264]
Political divisions
Russia, by 1993 constitution, is a
symmetric (with the possibility of an asymmetric configuration) federation . Unlike the Soviet
asymmetric model of the RSFSR, where only republics were "subjects of the federation", the current constitution raised the status of other regions to the level of republics and made all regions equal with the title "subject of the federation". The regions of Russia have reserved areas of competence, but no regions have sovereignty, do not have the status of a sovereign state, do not have the right to indicate any sovereignty in their constitutions and do not have the right to secede from the country. The laws of the regions cannot contradict federal laws.
[265]
The
federal subjects
[j] have equal representation—two delegates each—in the
Federation Council , the
upper house of the Federal Assembly.
[266] They do, however, differ in the degree of
autonomy they enjoy.
[267] The
federal districts of Russia were established by Putin in 2000 to facilitate central government control of the federal subjects.
[268] Originally seven, currently there are eight federal districts, each headed by an envoy appointed by the president.
[269]
Federal subjects
Governance
The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected legislature. Commonly named after their administrative centres.
[270]
Each is nominally autonomous—home to a specific
ethnic minority , and has its own constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs.
[271]
For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title "krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to frontiers.
[272]
Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and "autonomous region", each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority.
[273]
Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow and Saint Petersburg, as well as
Sevastopol in Russian-occupied Ukraine).
[274]
1 autonomous oblast
The only autonomous oblast is the
Jewish Autonomous Oblast .
[275]
Foreign relations
Putin with G20 counterparts in
Osaka , 2019
Russia had the world's fifth-largest diplomatic network in 2019. It maintains diplomatic relations with 190
United Nations member states , four
partially-recognised states , and three
United Nations observer states ; along with
144 embassies .
[276] Russia is one of the
five permanent members of the
United Nations Security Council . It has historically been a
great power ,
[277] and a former
superpower as the leading constituent of the former Soviet Union.
[154] Russia is a member of the
G20 , the
OSCE , and the
APEC . Russia also takes a leading role in organisations such as the
CIS ,
[278] the
EAEU ,
[279] the
CSTO ,
[280] the
SCO ,
[281] and
BRICS .
[282]
Russia maintains close relations
with neighbouring Belarus , which is a part of the
Union State , a supranational confederation of the two states.
[283]
Serbia has been a
historically close ally of Russia, as both countries share a strong mutual cultural, ethnic, and religious affinity.
[284] India is the largest customer of Russian military equipment, and the two countries share a strong
strategic and diplomatic relationship since the Soviet era.
[285] Russia wields influence across the
geopolitically important
South Caucasus and Central Asia; and the two regions have been described as Russia's "backyard".
[286]
[287]
Russia Countries on Russia's "
Unfriendly Countries List ". The list includes countries that have imposed
sanctions against Russia for its invasion of Ukraine.
In the 21st century Russia has pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at securing regional dominance and international influence, as well as increasing domestic support for the government. Military intervention in the
post-soviet states include a
war with Georgia in 2008, and the
invasion and destabilisation of Ukraine beginning in 2014. Russia has also sought to increase its influence in the
Middle East , most significantly through military intervention in the
Syrian civil war .
Cyberwarfare and
airspace violations, along with electoral interference, have been used to increase perceptions of Russian power.
[288] Russia's relations with
neighbouring Ukraine and the Western world—especially the
United States , the
European Union , the
United Nations and
NATO —have collapsed; especially following the start of the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2014 and the consequent escalation in 2022.
[289]
[290] Relations between Russia and China have significantly
strengthened bilaterally and economically ; due to shared political interests.
[291]
Turkey and Russia share a complex
strategic, energy, and defence relationship .
[292] Russia maintains
cordial relations with Iran, as it is a strategic and economic ally.
[293] Russia has also increasingly pushed to expand its influence across the
Arctic ,
[294] Asia-Pacific,
[295] Africa,
[296] the Middle East,
[297] and Latin America.
[298] According to the
Economist Intelligence Unit , two-thirds of the world's population live in countries such as
China or
India that are neutral or leaning towards Russia.
[299]
Military
Sukhoi Su-57 , a
fifth-generation fighter of the
Russian Air Force
[300]
The
Russian Armed Forces are divided into the
Ground Forces , the
Navy , and the
Aerospace Forces —and there are also two independent arms of service: the
Strategic Missile Troops and the
Airborne Troops .
[11] As of 2021
[update] , the military have around a million active-duty personnel, which is the world's
fifth-largest , and about 2–20 million
reserve personnel .
[301]
[302] It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be
drafted for a year of service in the Armed Forces.
[11]
Russia is among the five
recognised
nuclear-weapons states , with the world's
largest stockpile of nuclear weapons ; over half of the world's nuclear weapons are owned by Russia.
[303] Russia possesses the second-largest fleet of
ballistic missile submarines ,
[304] and is one of the only three countries operating
strategic bombers .
[305] Russia maintains the world's
third-highest military expenditure , spending $109 billion in 2023, corresponding to around 5.9% of its GDP.
[306] In 2021 it was the world's
second-largest arms exporter , and had a large and entirely indigenous
defence industry , producing most of its own military equipment.
[307]
Human rights
Following the
Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022,
anti-war protests broke out across Russia. The protests have been met with widespread repression, leading to about 15,000 people being arrested.
[308]
Violations of
human rights in Russia have been increasingly reported by leading democracy and
human rights groups . In particular,
Amnesty International and
Human Rights Watch say that Russia is not democratic and allows few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.
[309]
[310]
Since 2004,
Freedom House has ranked Russia as "not free" in its
Freedom in the World survey.
[311] Since 2011, the
Economist Intelligence Unit has ranked Russia as an "authoritarian regime" in its
Democracy Index , ranking it 144th out of 167 countries in 2023.
[312] In regards to
media freedom , Russia was ranked 155th out of 180 countries in
Reporters Without Borders '
Press Freedom Index for 2022.
[313] The Russian government has been widely criticised by political dissidents and
human rights activists for
unfair elections ,
[314] crackdowns on
opposition political parties and protests ,
[315]
[316]
persecution of non-governmental organisations and enforced suppression and
killings of independent journalists ,
[317]
[318]
[319] and
censorship of mass media and
internet .
[320]
Muslims, especially
Salafis , have faced persecution in Russia.
[321]
[322] To quash the
insurgency in the North Caucasus , Russian authorities have been accused of indiscriminate killings,
[323] arrests, forced disappearances, and torture of civilians.
[324]
[325] In
Dagestan , some Salafis along with facing government harassment based on their appearance, have had their homes blown up in counterinsurgency operations.
[326]
[327] Chechens and
Ingush in
Russian prisons reportedly take more abuse than other ethnic groups.
[328] During the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, Russia has set up
filtration camps where many Ukrainians are subjected to abuses and forcibly sent to Russia; the camps have been compared to
those used in the Chechen Wars .
[329]
[330] Political repression also increased following the start of the invasion, with
laws adopted that establish punishments for "discrediting" the armed forces.
[331]
Russia has introduced several restrictions on
LGBT rights , including a 2020 ban on same-sex marriage and the designation of LGBT+ organisations such as the
Russian LGBT Network as "
foreign agents ".
[332]
[333]
Corruption
Russia's
autocratic
[334] political system has been variously described as a
kleptocracy ,
[335] an
oligarchy ,
[336] and a
plutocracy .
[337] It was the lowest rated European country in
Transparency International 's
Corruption Perceptions Index for 2023, ranking 141th out of 180 countries.
[338] Russia has a long history of corruption, which is seen as a significant problem.
[339] It impacts various sectors, including the economy,
[340] business,
[341]
public administration ,
[342]
law enforcement ,
[343]
healthcare ,
[344]
[345]
education ,
[346] and the military.
[347]
Law and crime
The primary and fundamental statement of laws in Russia is the
Constitution of the Russian Federation . Statutes, like the
Russian Civil Code and the
Russian Criminal Code , are the predominant legal sources of Russian law.
[348]
[349]
[350]
Russia has the world's second largest illegal arms trade market, after the United States, is ranked first in Europe and 32nd globally in the Global Organized Crime Index, and is among the countries with the highest number of people in prison.
[351]
[352]
[353]
Economy
The
Moscow International Business Centre in Moscow. The city has one of the world's
largest urban economies .
[354]
Russia has a
market economy , with enormous natural resources, particularly
oil and
natural gas .
[355] It has the world's
ninth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the
sixth-largest by
PPP . The large
service sector accounts for 62% of total GDP, followed by the
industrial sector (32%), while the
agricultural sector is the smallest, making up only 5% of total GDP.
[11] Russia has a low official
unemployment rate of 4.1%.
[356] Its
foreign exchange reserves are the world's
fifth-largest , worth $540 billion.
[357] It has a labour force of roughly 70 million, which is the world's
sixth-largest .
[358]
Russia is the world's
thirteenth-largest exporter and the
21st-largest importer .
[359]
[360] It relies heavily on revenues from oil and gas-related taxes and export tariffs, which accounted for 45% of Russia's federal budget revenues in January 2022,
[361] and up to 60% of its exports in 2019.
[362] Russia has one of the
lowest levels of external debt among major economies,
[363] although its
inequality of household income and wealth is one of the highest among developed countries.
[364] High regional disparity is also an issue.
[365]
[366]
After over a decade of post-Soviet rapid economic growth, backed by high oil-prices and a surge in foreign exchange reserves and investment,
[197] Russia's economy was damaged following the start of the Russo-Ukrainian War and the annexation of Crimea in 2014, due to the first wave of
international sanctions being imposed .
[367] In the aftermath of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the country has faced
revamped sanctions and corporate boycotts ,
[368] becoming the most sanctioned country in the world,
[369] in a move described as an "all-out economic and financial war" to isolate the Russian economy from the Western financial system.
[208] Due to the
impact , the Russian government has stopped publishing a raft of economic data since April 2022.
[370] Economists suggest the sanctions will have a long-term effect over the Russian economy.
[371]
Transport and energy
The
Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway line in the world, connecting Moscow to
Vladivostok .
[372]
Railway transport in Russia is mostly under the control of the state-run
Russian Railways . The total length of common-used railway tracks is the world's
third-longest , and exceeds 87,000 km (54,100 mi).
[373] As of 2016
[update] , Russia has the world's
fifth-largest road network , with 1.5 million km of roads,
[374] while its road density is among the world's lowest.
[375] Russia's inland waterways are the world's
longest , and total 102,000 km (63,380 mi).
[376] Among
Russia's 1,218 airports ,
[377] the
busiest is
Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow. Russia's largest port is the
Port of Novorossiysk in
Krasnodar Krai along the Black Sea.
[378]
Russia was widely described as an
energy superpower .
[379] It has the world's largest
proven gas reserves ,
[380] the second-largest
coal reserves ,
[381] the eighth-largest
oil reserves ,
[382] and the largest
oil shale reserves in Europe.
[383] Russia is also the world's
leading natural gas exporter ,
[384] the
second-largest natural gas producer ,
[385] and the second-largest oil
producer and
exporter .
[386]
[387] Russia's oil and gas production led to deep economic relationships with the
European Union , China, and
former Soviet and
Eastern Bloc states .
[388]
[389] For example, over the last decade, Russia's share of supplies to total
European Union (including the United Kingdom) gas demand increased from 25% in 2009 to 32% in the weeks before the
Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022.
[389]
In the mid-2000s, the share of the oil and gas sector in GDP was around 20%, and in 2013 it was 20–21% of GDP.
[390] The share of oil and gas in Russia's exports (about 50%) and federal budget revenues (about 50%) is large, and the dynamics of Russia's GDP are highly dependent on oil and gas prices,
[391] but the share in GDP is much less than 50%. According to the first such comprehensive assessment published by the Russian statistics agency Rosstat in 2021, the maximum total share of the oil and gas sector in Russia's GDP, including extraction, refining, transport, sale of oil and gas, all goods and services used, and all supporting activities, amounts to 19.2% in 2019 and 15.2% in 2020. This is comparable to the share of GDP in Norway and Kazakhstan. It is much lower than the share of GDP in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.
[392]
[393]
[394]
[395]
[396]
Russia ratified the
Paris Agreement in 2019.
[397]
Greenhouse gas emissions by Russia are the world's
fourth-largest .
[398] Russia is the world's fourth-largest
electricity producer .
[399] It was also the world's first country to develop civilian nuclear power, and to construct the world's
first nuclear power plant .
[400] Russia was also the world's fourth-largest
nuclear energy producer in 2019,
[401] and was the fifth-largest
hydroelectric producer in 2021.
[402]
Agriculture and fishery
Wheat in
Tomsk Oblast , Siberia
Russia's agriculture sector contributes about 5% of the country's total GDP, although the sector employs about one-eighth of the total labour force.
[403] It has the world's
third-largest cultivated area , at 1,265,267 square kilometres (488,522 sq mi). However, due to the harshness of its environment, about 13.1% of its land is
agricultural ,
[11] and only 7.4% of its land is
arable .
[404] The country's agricultural land is considered part of the "
breadbasket " of Europe.
[405] More than one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is devoted to
industrial crops , vegetables, and fruits.
[403] The main product of Russian farming has always been grain, which occupies considerably more than half of the cropland.
[403] Russia is the world's
largest exporter of wheat ,
[406]
[407] the
largest producer of barley and
buckwheat , among the largest exporters of
maize and
sunflower oil , and the leading producer of
fertilizer .
[408]
Various analysts of
climate change adaptation foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.
[409] Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas, Russia
maintains the world's
sixth-largest fishing industry ; capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018.
[410] It is home to the world's finest caviar, the
beluga ; and produces about one-third of all canned fish, and some one-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.
[403]
Science and technology
Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765),
polymath scientist, inventor, poet and artist
Russia spent about 1% of its GDP on
research and development in 2019, with the world's
tenth-highest budget .
[411] It also ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications in 2020, with roughly 1.3 million papers.
[412] Since 1904,
Nobel Prize were awarded to 26 Soviets and Russians in
physics ,
chemistry ,
medicine ,
economy ,
literature and
peace .
[413] Russia ranked 51st in the
Global Innovation Index in 2023, down from 45th in 2021.
[414]
[415]
Since the times of
Nikolay Lobachevsky , who pioneered the
non-Euclidean geometry , and
Pafnuty Chebyshev , a prominent tutor; Russian
mathematicians became among the world's most influential.
[416]
Dmitry Mendeleev invented the
Periodic table , the main framework of modern
chemistry .
[417] Nine Soviet and Russian mathematicians have been awarded with the
Fields Medal .
Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever Clay
Millennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of the
Poincaré conjecture in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006.
[418]
Alexander Popov was among the
inventors of radio ,
[419] while
Nikolai Basov and
Alexander Prokhorov were co-inventors of
laser and
maser .
[420]
Oleg Losev made crucial contributions in the field of
semiconductor junctions , and discovered
light-emitting diodes .
[421]
Vladimir Vernadsky is considered one of the founders of
geochemistry ,
biogeochemistry , and
radiogeology .
[422]
Élie Metchnikoff is known for his groundbreaking research in
immunology .
[423]
Ivan Pavlov is known chiefly for his work in
classical conditioning .
[424]
Lev Landau made fundamental contributions to many areas of
theoretical physics .
[425]
Nikolai Vavilov was best known for having identified the
centres of origin of
cultivated plants.
[426]
Trofim Lysenko was known mainly for
Lysenkoism .
[427] Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were
émigrés .
Igor Sikorsky was an
aviation pioneer .
[428]
Vladimir Zworykin was the inventor of the
iconoscope and
kinescope television systems.
[429]
Theodosius Dobzhansky was the central figure in the field of
evolutionary biology for his work in shaping the
modern synthesis .
[430]
George Gamow was one of the foremost advocates of the
Big Bang theory.
[431]
Space exploration
Mir , Russian
space station that operated in
LEO
Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in the field of
space technology and
space exploration can be traced back to
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky , the father of theoretical
astronautics , whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as
Sergey Korolyov ,
Valentin Glushko , and many others who contributed to the success of the
Soviet space program in the early stages of the
Space Race and beyond.
[432] : 6–7, 333
In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial
satellite ,
Sputnik 1 , was launched. In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by
Yuri Gagarin . Many other Soviet and Russian
space exploration records ensued. In 1963,
Valentina Tereshkova became the first and youngest
woman in space , having flown a solo mission on
Vostok 6 .
[433] In 1965,
Alexei Leonov became the first human to conduct a
spacewalk , exiting the
space capsule during
Voskhod 2 .
[434]
In 1957,
Laika , a
Soviet space dog , became the first animal to orbit the Earth, aboard
Sputnik 2 .
[435] In 1966,
Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on a
celestial body , the
Moon .
[436] In 1968,
Zond 5 brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon.
[437] In 1970,
Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to land on another planet,
Venus .
[438] In 1971,
Mars 3 became the first spacecraft to land on
Mars .
[439] : 34–60 During the same period,
Lunokhod 1 became the first
space exploration rover ,
[440] while
Salyut 1 became the world's first
space station .
[441]
Russia had 172 active satellites in space in April 2022, the world's third-highest.
[442] Between the final flight of the
Space Shuttle program in 2011 and the 2020
SpaceX 's
first crewed mission ,
Soyuz rockets were the only launch vehicles capable of transporting astronauts to the
ISS .
[443]
Luna 25 launched in August 2023, was the first of the
Luna-Glob Moon exploration programme.
[444]
Tourism
Peterhof Palace in Saint Petersburg, a
UNESCO World Heritage Site
According to the
World Tourism Organization , Russia was the sixteenth-most visited country in the world, and the tenth-most visited country in Europe, in 2018, with over 24.6 million visits.
[445] According to
Federal Agency for Tourism , the number of inbound trips of foreign citizens to Russia amounted to 24.4 million in 2019.
[446] Russia's international tourism receipts in 2018 amounted to $11.6 billion.
[445] In 2019, travel and tourism accounted for about 4.8% of country's total GDP.
[447]
Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the
Golden Ring of Russia , a
theme route of ancient Russian cities, cruises on large rivers such as the Volga, hikes on mountain ranges such as the
Caucasus Mountains ,
[448] and journeys on the famous
Trans-Siberian Railway .
[449] Russia's most visited and popular landmarks include
Red Square , the
Peterhof Palace , the
Kazan Kremlin , the
Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius and Lake Baikal.
[450]
Moscow, the nation's cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a bustling
megacity . It retains its classical and Soviet-era architecture; while boasting high art, world class ballet, and
modern skyscrapers .
[451]
Saint Petersburg , the Imperial capital, is famous for its classical architecture, cathedrals, museums and theatres,
white nights , criss-crossing rivers and numerous canals.
[452] Russia is famed worldwide for its rich museums, such as the
State Russian , the
State Hermitage , and the
Tretyakov Gallery ; and for theatres such as the
Bolshoi and the
Mariinsky . The
Moscow Kremlin and the
Saint Basil's Cathedral are among the cultural landmarks of Russia.
[453]
Demographics
Ethnic groups in Russia with a population of over one million according to the 2010 census
Percentage of ethnic Russians by region according to the 2021 census
Russia is one of the world's
most sparsely populated and
urbanised countries,
[11] with the vast majority of its population concentrated within its
western part .
[454] It had a population of 142.8 million according to the
2010 census ,
[455] which rose to 144.7 million as of the
2021 census (excluding Crimea and Sevastopol).
[16] Russia is the
most populous country in Europe, and the world's
ninth most populous country , with a
population density of 8 inhabitants per square kilometre (21 inhabitants/sq mi).
[456]
Since the 1990s, Russia's
death rate has exceeded its
birth rate , which some analysts have called a
demographic crisis .
[457] In 2022, the
total fertility rate across Russia was estimated to be 1.42 children born per woman,
[458] which is below the replacement rate of 2.1, and is one of the world's
lowest fertility rates .
[459] Subsequently, the nation has one of the world's
oldest populations , with a median age of 40.3 years.
[11] In 2009, it recorded annual population growth for the first time in fifteen years, and subsequently experienced annual population growth due to declining
death rates , increased
birth rates , and increased immigration.
[460]
However, since 2020, Russia's population gains have been reversed, as excessive deaths from the
COVID-19 pandemic resulted in its largest peacetime decline in history.
[461] Following the
Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 , the demographic crisis in the country has deepened,
[462] as the country has reportedly suffered high military fatalities while facing renewed
brain drain and
human capital flight caused by Western mass-sanctions and boycotts.
[463]
Russia is a
multinational state with many subnational entities associated with different minorities.
[464] There are over
193 ethnic groups nationwide . In the 2010 census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic
Russians , and the remaining 19% of the population were ethnic minorities;
[465] while over four-fifths of Russia's population was of
European descent —of whom the vast majority were
Slavs ,
[466] with a substantial minority of
Finno-Ugric and
Germanic peoples .
[467]
[468] According to the United Nations, Russia's
immigrant population is the world's third-largest, numbering over 11.6 million;
[469] most of which are from
post-Soviet states , mainly from
Central Asia .
[470]
Largest cities or towns in Russia
Rank
Name
Federal subject
Pop.
Rank
Name
Federal subject
Pop.
1
Moscow
Moscow
13,149,803
11
Rostov-on-Don
Rostov Oblast
1,140,487
2
Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg
5,597,763
12
Krasnodar
Krasnodar Krai
1,138,654
3
Novosibirsk
Novosibirsk Oblast
1,633,851
13
Omsk
Omsk Oblast
1,104,485
4
Yekaterinburg
Sverdlovsk Oblast
1,536,183
14
Voronezh
Voronezh Oblast
1,046,425
5
Kazan
Tatarstan
1,318,604
15
Perm
Perm Krai
1,026,908
6
Krasnoyarsk
Krasnoyarsk Krai
1,205,473
16
Volgograd
Volgograd Oblast
1,018,898
7
Nizhny Novgorod
Nizhny Novgorod Oblast
1,204,985
17
Saratov
Saratov Oblast
887,365
8
Chelyabinsk
Chelyabinsk Oblast
1,177,058
18
Tyumen
Tyumen Oblast
861,098
9
Ufa
Bashkortostan
1,163,304
19
Tolyatti
Samara Oblast
667,956
10
Samara
Samara Oblast
1,158,952
20
Makhachkala
Dagestan
622,091
Language
Russian is the
official and the predominantly spoken language in Russia.
[3] It is the most spoken
native language in Europe, the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, as well as the world's most widely spoken
Slavic language .
[473] Russian is one of two official languages aboard the
International Space Station ,
[474] as well as one of the six
official languages of the United Nations .
[473]
Russia is a
multilingual nation; approximately 100–150 minority languages are spoken across the country.
[475]
[476] According to the
Russian Census of 2010 , 137.5 million across the country spoke Russian, 4.3 million spoke
Tatar , and 1.1 million spoke
Ukrainian .
[477] The constitution gives the country's individual republics the right to
establish their own state languages in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.
[478] However, various experts have claimed Russia's linguistic diversity is rapidly declining due to
many languages becoming endangered .
[479]
[480]
Religion
Saint Basil's Cathedral in Moscow is the most iconic religious architecture of Russia.
Russia is a
secular state by constitution, and its largest religion is
Eastern Orthodox Christianity , chiefly represented by the
Russian Orthodox Church .
[481] Orthodox Christianity, together with
Islam ,
Buddhism , and
Paganism (either preserved or
revived ), are recognised by Russian law as the traditional religions of the country, part of its "historical heritage".
[482]
[483]
Islam is the second-largest religion in Russia, and is the traditional religion among the majority of the
peoples of the North Caucasus , and among some
Turkic peoples scattered along the
Volga-Ural region.
[481] Large populations of Buddhists are found in
Kalmykia ,
Buryatia ,
Zabaykalsky Krai , and they are the vast majority of the population in
Tuva .
[481] Many Russians practise other religions, including
Rodnovery (Slavic Neopaganism),
[484]
Assianism (Scythian Neopaganism),
[485] other ethnic Paganisms, and inter-Pagan movements such as
Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism ,
[486] various movements of
Hinduism ,
[487]
Siberian shamanism
[488] and
Tengrism , various
Neo-Theosophical movements such as
Roerichism , and other faiths.
[489]
[490] Some religious minorities have faced oppression and some have been banned in the country;
[491] notably, in 2017 the
Jehovah's Witnesses were outlawed in Russia, facing persecution ever since, after having been declared an "extremist" and "nontraditional" faith.
[492]
In 2012, the research organisation Sreda, in cooperation with the
Ministry of Justice , published the Arena Atlas, an adjunct to the 2010 census, enumerating in detail the religious populations and nationalities of Russia, based on a large-sample country-wide survey. The results showed that 47.3% of Russians declared themselves Christians—including 41% Russian Orthodox, 1.5% simply Orthodox or members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 4.1% unaffiliated Christians, and less than 1%
Old Believers ,
Catholics or
Protestants —25% were
believers without affiliation to any specific religion , 13% were
atheists , 6.5% were Muslims,
[k] 1.2% were followers of "traditional religions honouring gods and ancestors" (
Rodnovery , other Paganisms,
Siberian shamanism and
Tengrism ), 0.5% were Buddhists, 0.1% were
religious Jews and 0.1% were Hindus.
[481]
Education
Moscow State University , the most prestigious educational institution in Russia
[493]
Russia has an adult
literacy rate of 100%,
[494] and has
compulsory education for a duration of 11 years, exclusively for children aged 7 to 17–18.
[495] It grants
free education to its citizens by constitution.
[496] The
Ministry of Education of Russia is responsible for primary and secondary education, as well as vocational education; while the
Ministry of Education and Science of Russia is responsible for science and higher education.
[495] Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. Russia is among the world's most educated countries, and has the
sixth-highest proportion of
tertiary-level graduates in terms of percentage of population, at 62.1%.
[497] It spent roughly 4.7% of its GDP on education in 2018.
[498]
Russia's
pre-school education system is highly developed and optional,
[499] some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or kindergartens. Primary school is compulsory for eleven years, starting from age 6 to 7, and leads to a basic general education certificate.
[495] An additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russians continue their education past this level.
[500]
Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive:
[496] first-degree courses usually take five years.
[500] The oldest and largest
universities in Russia are
Moscow State University and
Saint Petersburg State University .
[501] There are ten highly prestigious
federal universities across the country. Russia was the world's fifth-leading destination for
international students in 2019, hosting roughly 300 thousand.
[502]
Health
Metallurg, a Soviet-era
sanatorium in
Sochi
[503]
Russia, by constitution, guarantees free,
universal health care for all Russian citizens, through a compulsory state health insurance program.
[504] The
Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation oversees the Russian public healthcare system, and the sector employs more than two million people. Federal regions also have their own departments of health that oversee local administration. A separate private health insurance plan is needed to access private healthcare in Russia.
[505]
Russia spent 5.65% of its GDP on healthcare in 2019.
[506] Its healthcare expenditure is notably lower than other developed nations.
[507] Russia has one of the world's most female-biased
sex ratios , with 0.859 males to every female,
[11] due to its high male
mortality rate .
[508] In 2021, the overall
life expectancy in Russia at birth was 70.06 years (65.51 years for males and 74.51 years for females),
[509] and it had a very low
infant mortality rate (5 per 1,000
live births ).
[510]
The principal cause of death in Russia are cardiovascular diseases.
[511]
Obesity is a prevalent health issue in Russia; most adults are overweight or obese.
[512] However, Russia's historically high
alcohol consumption rate is the biggest health issue in the country,
[513] as it remains
one of the world's highest , despite a stark decrease in the last decade.
[514]
Smoking is another health issue in the country.
[515] The country's
high suicide rate , although
on the decline ,
[516] remains a significant social issue.
[517]
Culture
The
Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow, at night
Russian
writers and
philosophers have played an important role in the development of
European literature and thought.
[518]
[519] The Russians have also greatly influenced classical music,
[520]
ballet ,
[521]
sport ,
[522]
painting ,
[523] and
cinema .
[524] The nation has also made pioneering contributions to
science and technology and
space exploration .
[525]
[526]
Russia is home to
30 UNESCO World Heritage Sites , 19 out of which are cultural; while 27 more sites lie on the tentative list.
[527] The large global
Russian diaspora has also played a major role in spreading Russian culture throughout the world. Russia's national symbol, the
double-headed eagle , dates back to the Tsardom period, and is featured in its
coat of arms and
heraldry .
[72] The
Russian Bear and
Mother Russia are often used as
national personifications of the country.
[528]
[529]
Matryoshka dolls are considered a cultural icon of Russia.
[530]
Holidays
The
Scarlet Sails being celebrated along the
Neva in Saint Petersburg
Russia has eight—public, patriotic, and religious—official holidays.
[531] The year starts with New Year's Day on 1 January, soon followed by
Russian Orthodox Christmas on 7 January; the two are the country's most popular holidays.
[532]
Defender of the Fatherland Day , dedicated to men, is celebrated on 23 February.
[533]
International Women's Day on 8 March, gained momentum in Russia during the Soviet era. The annual celebration of women has become so popular, especially among Russian men, that Moscow's flower vendors often see profits of "15 times" more than other holidays.
[534]
Spring and Labour Day , originally a Soviet era holiday dedicated to workers, is celebrated on 1 May.
[535]
Victory Day , which honours Soviet victory over Nazi Germany and the
End of World War II in Europe , is celebrated on 9 May as an annual
large parade in Moscow's Red Square;
[536] and marks the famous
Immortal Regiment civil event.
[537] Other patriotic holidays include
Russia Day on 12 June, celebrated to commemorate Russia's
declaration of sovereignty from the collapsing Soviet Union;
[538] and
Unity Day on 4 November, commemorating the
1612 uprising which marked the end of the
Polish occupation of Moscow .
[539]
There are many popular non-public holidays.
Old New Year is celebrated on 14 January.
[540]
Maslenitsa is an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday.
[541]
Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space.
[542] Two major Christian holidays are Easter and
Trinity Sunday .
[543]
Art and architecture
Early Russian painting is represented in
icons and vibrant
frescos . In the early 15th century, the master icon painter
Andrei Rublev created some of Russia's most treasured religious art.
[544] The
Russian Academy of Arts , which was established in 1757, to train Russian artists, brought Western techniques of secular painting to Russia.
[87] In the 18th century, academicians
Ivan Argunov ,
Dmitry Levitzky ,
Vladimir Borovikovsky became influential.
[545] The early 19th century saw many prominent paintings by
Karl Briullov and
Alexander Ivanov , both of whom were known for
Romantic historical canvases.
[546]
[547]
Ivan Aivazovsky , another Romantic painter, is considered one of the greatest masters of
marine art .
[548]
In the 1860s, a group of critical
realists (
Peredvizhniki ), led by
Ivan Kramskoy ,
Ilya Repin and
Vasiliy Perov broke with the academy, and portrayed the many-sided aspects of social life in paintings.
[549] The turn of the 20th century saw the rise of
symbolism ; represented by
Mikhail Vrubel and
Nicholas Roerich .
[550]
[551] The
Russian avant-garde flourished from approximately 1890 to 1930; and globally influential artists from this era were
El Lissitzky ,
[552]
Kazimir Malevich ,
Natalia Goncharova ,
Wassily Kandinsky , and
Marc Chagall .
[553]
The history of
Russian architecture begins with early woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs, and the
church architecture of Kievan Rus' .
[554] Following the
Christianization of Kievan Rus' , for several centuries it was influenced predominantly by
Byzantine architecture .
[555]
Aristotle Fioravanti and other Italian architects brought
Renaissance trends into Russia.
[556] The 16th century saw the development of the unique
tent-like churches ; and the
onion dome design, which is a distinctive feature of Russian architecture.
[557] In the 17th century, the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and
Yaroslavl , gradually paving the way for the
Naryshkin baroque of the 1680s.
[558]
After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles. The 18th-century taste for
Rococo architecture led to the
splendid works of
Bartolomeo Rastrelli and his followers. The most influential Russian architects of the eighteenth century;
Vasily Bazhenov ,
Matvey Kazakov , and
Ivan Starov , created lasting monuments in Moscow and Saint Petersburg and established a base for the more Russian forms that followed.
[544] During the reign of Catherine the Great, Saint Petersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum of
Neoclassical architecture .
[559] Under Alexander I,
Empire style became the de facto architectural style.
[560] The second half of the 19th century was dominated by the
Neo-Byzantine and
Russian Revival style.
[561] In the early 20th century,
Russian neoclassical revival became a trend.
[562] Prevalent styles of the late 20th century were
Art Nouveau ,
[563]
Constructivism ,
[564] and
Socialist Classicism .
[565]
Music
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840–1893), in a 1893 painting by
Nikolai Dmitriyevich Kuznetsov
Until the 18th century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances.
[566] In the 19th century, it was defined by the tension between classical composer
Mikhail Glinka along with other members of
The Mighty Handful , who were later succeeded by the
Belyayev circle ,
[567] and the
Russian Musical Society led by composers
Anton and
Nikolay Rubinstein .
[568] The later tradition of
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky , one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, was continued into the 20th century by
Sergei Rachmaninoff . World-renowned composers of the 20th century include
Alexander Scriabin ,
Alexander Glazunov ,
[566]
Igor Stravinsky ,
Sergei Prokofiev and
Dmitri Shostakovich , and later
Edison Denisov ,
Sofia Gubaidulina ,
[569]
Georgy Sviridov ,
[570] and
Alfred Schnittke .
[569]
During the Soviet era,
popular music also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two
balladeers —
Vladimir Vysotsky and
Bulat Okudzhava ,
[569] and performers such as
Alla Pugacheva .
[571]
Jazz , even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms.
[569] By the 1980s,
rock music became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as
Aria ,
Aquarium ,
[572]
DDT ,
[573] and
Kino ;
[574] the latter's leader
Viktor Tsoi , was in particular, a gigantic figure.
[575]
Pop music has continued to flourish in Russia since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as
t.A.T.u.
[576]
Literature and philosophy
Russian literature is considered to be among the world's most influential and developed.
[518] It can be traced to the
Middle Ages , when epics and chronicles in
Old East Slavic were composed.
[579] By the
Age of Enlightenment , literature had grown in importance, with works from
Mikhail Lomonosov ,
Denis Fonvizin ,
Gavrila Derzhavin , and
Nikolay Karamzin .
[580] From the early 1830s, during the
Golden Age of Russian Poetry , literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama.
[581]
Romanticism permitted a flowering of poetic talent:
Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégé
Alexander Pushkin came to the fore.
[582] Following Pushkin's footsteps, a new generation of poets were born, including
Mikhail Lermontov ,
Nikolay Nekrasov ,
Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy ,
Fyodor Tyutchev and
Afanasy Fet .
[580]
The first great Russian novelist was
Nikolai Gogol .
[583] Then came
Ivan Turgenev , who mastered both short stories and novels.
[584]
Fyodor Dostoevsky and
Leo Tolstoy soon became internationally renowned.
Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin wrote prose satire,
[585] while
Nikolai Leskov is best remembered for his shorter fiction.
[586] In the second half of the century
Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist.
[587] Other important 19th-century developments included the fabulist
Ivan Krylov ,
[588] non-fiction writers such as the critic
Vissarion Belinsky ,
[589] and playwrights such as
Aleksandr Griboyedov and
Aleksandr Ostrovsky .
[590]
[591] The beginning of the 20th century ranks as the
Silver Age of Russian Poetry . This era had poets such as
Alexander Blok ,
Anna Akhmatova ,
Boris Pasternak , and
Konstantin Balmont .
[592] It also produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such as
Aleksandr Kuprin , Nobel Prize winner
Ivan Bunin ,
Leonid Andreyev ,
Yevgeny Zamyatin ,
Dmitry Merezhkovsky and
Andrei Bely .
[580]
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and
white émigré parts. In the 1930s,
Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia. Its leading figure was
Maxim Gorky , who laid the foundations of this style.
[593]
Mikhail Bulgakov was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era.
[594]
Nikolay Ostrovsky 's novel
How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian literature. Influential émigré writers include
Vladimir Nabokov ,
[595] and
Isaac Asimov ; who was considered one of the "Big Three" science fiction writers.
[596] Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel Prize-winning novelist
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn , who wrote about life in the Gulag camps.
[597]
Russian philosophy has been greatly influential.
Alexander Herzen is known as one of the fathers of
agrarian
populism .
[598]
Mikhail Bakunin is referred to as the father of
anarchism .
[599]
Peter Kropotkin was the most important theorist of
anarcho-communism .
[600]
Mikhail Bakhtin 's writings have significantly inspired scholars.
[601]
Helena Blavatsky gained international following as the leading theoretician of
Theosophy , and co-founded the
Theosophical Society .
[602]
Vladimir Lenin , a major revolutionary, developed a variant of communism known as
Leninism .
[603]
Leon Trotsky , on the other hand, founded
Trotskyism .
[604]
Alexander Zinoviev was a prominent philosopher in the second half of the 20th century.
[605]
Aleksandr Dugin , known for his
fascist views, has been regarded as the "guru of geopolitics".
[606]
Cuisine
Kvass is an ancient and traditional Russian beverage.
Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of
rye , wheat,
barley , and
millet provide the ingredients for various breads,
pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks.
Bread , of many varieties,
[607] is very popular across Russia.
[608] Flavourful soups and stews include
shchi ,
borsch ,
ukha ,
solyanka , and
okroshka .
Smetana (a heavy
sour cream ) and
mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads.
[609]
[610]
Pirozhki ,
[611]
blini ,
[612] and
syrniki are native types of
pancakes .
[613]
Beef Stroganoff ,
[614] : 266
Chicken Kiev ,
[614] : 320
pelmeni ,
[615] and
shashlyk are popular meat dishes.
[616] Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (
golubtsy ) usually filled with meat.
[617] Salads include
Olivier salad ,
[618]
vinegret ,
[619] and
dressed herring .
[620]
Russia's
national non-alcoholic drink is
kvass ,
[621] and the national alcoholic drink is
vodka ; its production in Russia (and elsewhere) dates back to the 14th century.
[622] The country has the world's highest vodka consumption,
[623] while
beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage.
[624]
Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st century.
[625]
Tea has been popular in Russia for centuries.
[626]
Mass media and cinema
Ostankino Tower in Moscow, the
tallest freestanding structure in Europe
[627]
There are 400 news agencies in Russia, among which the largest internationally operating are
TASS ,
RIA Novosti ,
Sputnik , and
Interfax .
[628]
Television is the most popular medium in Russia.
[629] Among the 3,000 licensed radio stations nationwide, notable ones include
Radio Rossii ,
Vesti FM ,
Echo of Moscow ,
Radio Mayak , and
Russkoye Radio . Of the 16,000 registered newspapers,
Argumenty i Fakty ,
Komsomolskaya Pravda ,
Rossiyskaya Gazeta ,
Izvestia , and
Moskovskij Komsomolets are popular. State-run
Channel One and
Russia-1 are the leading news channels, while
RT is the flagship of Russia's international media operations.
[629] Russia has the
largest video gaming market in Europe, with over 65 million players nationwide.
[630]
Russian and later
Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such as
The Battleship Potemkin , which was named the
greatest film of all time at the
Brussels World's Fair in 1958.
[631]
[632] Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably
Sergei Eisenstein and
Andrei Tarkovsky , would go on to become among of the world's most innovative and influential directors.
[633]
[634] Eisenstein was a student of
Lev Kuleshov , who developed the groundbreaking
Soviet montage theory of film editing at the world's first film school, the
All-Union Institute of Cinematography .
[635]
Dziga Vertov 's "
Kino-Eye " theory had a huge impact on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism.
[636] Many Soviet socialist realism films were artistically successful, including
Chapaev ,
The Cranes Are Flying , and
Ballad of a Soldier .
[524]
The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema.
[524] The comedies of
Eldar Ryazanov and
Leonid Gaidai of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today.
[637]
[638] In 1961–68
Sergey Bondarchuk directed an
Oscar -winning
film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epic
War and Peace , which was
the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union.
[524] In 1969,
Vladimir Motyl 's
White Sun of the Desert was released, a very popular film in a genre of
ostern ; the film is traditionally watched by
cosmonauts before any trip into space.
[639] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema industry suffered large losses—however, since the late 2000s, it has seen growth once again, and continues to expand.
[640]
Sports
Maria Sharapova , former
world No. 1 tennis player, was the world's highest-paid female athlete for 11 consecutive years.
[641]
Football is the most popular sport in Russia.
[642] The
Soviet Union national football team became the first European champions by winning
Euro 1960 ,
[643] and reached the finals of
Euro 1988 .
[644] Russian clubs
CSKA Moscow and
Zenit Saint Petersburg won the
UEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008.
[645]
[646] The
Russian national football team reached the semi-finals of
Euro 2008 .
[647] Russia was the host nation for the
2017 FIFA Confederations Cup ,
[648] and the
2018 FIFA World Cup .
[649] However, Russian teams are currently suspended from FIFA and UEFA competitions.
[650]
Ice hockey is very popular in Russia, and the
Soviet national ice hockey team dominated the sport internationally throughout its existence.
[522]
Bandy is Russia's national sport, and it has historically been the highest-achieving country in the sport.
[651] The
Russian national basketball team won the
EuroBasket 2007 ,
[652] and the Russian basketball club
PBC CSKA Moscow is among the most successful European basketball teams.
[653] The annual
Formula One
Russian Grand Prix was held at the
Sochi Autodrom in the
Sochi Olympic Park , until its termination following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022.
[654]
[655]
Historically,
Russian athletes have been one of the most successful contenders in the
Olympic Games .
[522] Russia is the leading nation in
rhythmic gymnastics ; and Russian
synchronised swimming is considered to be the world's best.
[656]
Figure skating is another popular sport in Russia, especially
pair skating and
ice dancing .
[657] Russia has produced numerous prominent tennis players.
[658]
Chess is also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades.
[659] The
1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow,
[660] and the
2014 Winter Olympics and the
2014 Winter Paralympics were hosted in Sochi.
[661]
[662] However, Russia has also had 43
Olympic medals stripped from its athletes due to
doping violations , which is the most of any country, and nearly a third of the global total.
[663]
See also
Notes
^
Crimea , which was
annexed by Russia in 2014, remains
internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine.
[1] Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia oblasts, which were
annexed —though are only partially occupied—in 2022, also remain
internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine. The southernmost
Kuril Islands have been the subject of a
territorial dispute with Japan since their occupation by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II.
[2]
^
Russian : Россия ,
romanized : Rossiya ,
[rɐˈsʲijə]
^
Russian : Российская Федерация ,
tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya , IPA:
[rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə]
^ The fourteen countries bordering Russia are:
[20]
Norway and
Finland to the northwest;
Estonia ,
Latvia ,
Belarus and
Ukraine to the west, as well as
Lithuania and
Poland (with
Kaliningrad Oblast );
Georgia and
Azerbaijan to the southwest;
Kazakhstan and
Mongolia to the south;
China and
North Korea to the southeast. Russia also shares
maritime boundaries with Japan and the United States. Russia also shares borders with the two
partially recognised breakaway states of
South Ossetia and
Abkhazia that it occupies in Georgia.
^ Most notably the
Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis , the
Russian apartment bombings , the
Moscow theater hostage crisis , and the
Beslan school siege
^ Russia has an additional 850 km (530 mi) of coastline along the
Caspian Sea , which is the world's largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.
[223]
^ Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents of
Australia ,
Antarctica , and Europe; although it covers a large part of the latter itself. Its land area could be roughly compared to that of South America.
^ Russia borders, clockwise, to its southwest: the
Black Sea and the
Sea of Azov , to its west: the
Baltic Sea , to its north: the
Barents Sea (
White Sea ,
Pechora Sea ), the
Kara Sea , the
Laptev Sea , and the
East Siberian Sea , to its northeast: the
Chukchi Sea and the
Bering Sea , and to its southeast: the
Sea of Okhotsk and the
Sea of Japan .
^ In 2020,
constitutional amendments were signed into law that limit the president to two terms overall rather than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for current and previous presidents.
[258]
^ Including bodies on territory disputed between Russia and Ukraine whose annexation has not been internationally recognised: the
Republic of Crimea and the federal city of
Sevastopol since the annexation of Crimea in 2014,
[1] and territories set up following the
Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts in 2022.
^ The Sreda Arena Atlas 2012 did not count the populations of two federal subjects of Russia where the majority of the population is Muslim, namely
Chechnya and
Ingushetia , which together had a population of nearly 2 million, thus the proportion of Muslims was possibly slightly underestimated.
[481]
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Sources
Further reading
Bartlett, Roger P. A history of Russia (2005)
online
Breslauer, George W. and Colton, Timothy J. 2017. Russia Beyond Putin (
Daedalus )
online
Brown, Archie, ed. The Cambridge encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (1982)
online
Dutkiewicz, P.; Richard, S.; Vladimir, K. (2016).
The Social History of Post-Communist Russia . Routledge Contemporary Russia and Eastern Europe Series. Taylor & Francis.
ISBN
978-1-317-32846-9 . Retrieved 11 April 2022 .
Florinsky, Michael T. ed. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (1961).
Frye, Timothy. Weak Strongman: The Limits of Power in Putin's Russia (2021)
excerpt
Greene, by Samuel A. and Graeme B. Robertson. Putin v. the People: the Perilous Politics of a Divided Russia (Yale UP, 2019)
excerpt
Hosking, Geoffrey A. Russia and the Russians: a history (2011)
online
Kort, Michael. A Brief History of Russia (2008)
online
Kropotkin, Peter Alexeivitch ; Bealby, John Thomas;
Phillips, Walter Alison (1911).
"Russia" . In
Chisholm, Hugh (ed.).
Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 869–912.
Lowe, Norman. Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History (2002)
excerpt
Millar, James R. ed. Encyclopedia of Russian History (4 vol 2003).
online
Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. A History of Russia (9th ed. 2018)
9th edition 1993 online
Rosefielde, Steven. Putin's Russia: Economy, Defence and Foreign Policy (2020)
excerpt
Service, Robert. A History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-First Century (Harvard UP, 3rd ed., 2009)
excerpt
Smorodinskaya, Tatiana, and Karen Evans-Romaine, eds. Encyclopedia of Contemporary Russian Culture (2014)
excerpt ; 800 pp covering art, literature, music, film, media, crime, politics, business, and economics.
Walker, Shauin. The Long Hangover: Putin's New Russia and the Ghosts Of the Past (2018, Oxford UP)
excerpt
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