Enel, which stands for National Entity for Electricity (Ente nazionale per l'energia elettrica), is a
multinational manufacturer and distributor of electricty and gas.
Enel was first established as a
public body at the end of
1962, and then transformed into a
limited company in
1992.[1] In
1999, following the liberalization of the electricity market in Italy, Enel was privatized.[2] As of January
2015, the Italian government is the owner of 25.50% of the company’s
shares.[3][4][5]
Enel’s logo, designed by
Bob Noorda and Maurizio Minoggio, is a combination of a sun and a tree whose nine branches – or nine rays - represent the variety of services offered by the company.[16][17][18][19][20]
History
1898-1962: Towards a national policy for electricity
The hydroelectric power station of Rocchetta a Volturno
In
1898, the production of electricity in Italy was of 100 million
kilowatt hours[21][22][23] reaching a value of over $ 56 billion by
1960.[24][25] The majority of the electricity was produced by over and regional private companies[26][27][28], or by companies linked to other industrial bodies[29][30][31][32][33][34], that were both local and regional, by exploiting the specific characteristic of the territory: its hydrogeological resources.[35][36]
The state subsidized the construction of
power stations and any necessary construction work in the territory in order to increase the production of
electricity.[37][38][39] In terms of distribution, the state intervened in
1961 by unifying national tariffs on the basis of equal consumption classes (through the Equalization Fund for the Electricity Sector[40][41]) and by requiring power companies to provide access to electricity to everyone.[30][34][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49]
In
1962 the government institutionalised the Entity for electricity with the aim of making electricity a means for the development of the country and in order to define a national policy for electricity based on the experiences of other countries such as
France and
Britain.[46][47][50][51][52][53]
1962: establishing the National Entity for Electricity
Enel logo(1963-1982)
At the beginning of
1962 the Fanfani IV Cabinet made its commitment to the government to put together a proposal for the unification of the national electricity system within 3 months of the parliament casting its confidence motion.[51][54][55][56][57] During the
Chamber of Deputies assembly of June 26 1962, the government presented a
bill that sanctioned the principles and procedures for the establishment of the Entity for Electricity (E.N.E.L.).[28][58][59][60]
According to the bill, Enel was going to acquire all assets of all companies operating in the production, processing, transmission and distribution of electricity, with the exception of self-producers - companies that produced more than 70% of their electricity for other production processes – (the same exception was later applied to municipal authorities), and of small businesses that did not produce more than 10 million
kilowatt hours per year.[61][62][63][64][65]
Procedures to assess the value of the acquired companies were defined, and it was established that
compensation were to be paid to creditors in 10 years at an interest rate of 5.5%.[62][66] In this franework, 1962 was to be considered a transition year, in which all income and expenses of the acquired companies would be transferred to Enel. 1963 was thus the first operational year of the newly formed company.[67][68][69][70]
1963-1970: modernization and development of the network
Enel’s early goals were the modernisation and development of the
electricity grid with the construction of
high voltage backbones, international connections, connection to the islands, the
electrification of rural areas and the creation of the National Center for dispatching. These projects were to be co-financed by the state through the issuing - in 1965 - of bonds of a value of over 200 billion
Italian liras.[76][77] In 1967 Enel’s supervision was redirected from the Committee of Ministers to the interministerial Committee for Economic Planning (CIPE), under the Ministry of Industry.[62][78][79] During this period, the
production of
thermoelectric power surpassed for the very first time that of
hydroelectric power.[80][81]
National dispatch centre
In 1963 the National Dispatch Centre of
Rome was created in order to manage the energy flows on the network by coordinating the
production plants, the
transmission network, the
distribution as well as the interconnection of the Italian electricity system with that of foreign countries, by adjusting in real time the production and transmission of energy on the basis of the actual demand.[82][71][77][83][84][85][86]
Rural electrification
In terms of rural electrification the settlements that were not connected to the electricity grid went from 1.27% in 1960 to 0.46% in 1964, with over 320,000 new residents connected. In the five-year period between 1966 and 1970 further investments for rural electrification were made - 80% of the costs were covered by the state and 20% by Enel - those were complemented by reduced rates as an incentive for agricultural development.[87][88][89][90][91]
High-voltage network and connection to the islands
In 1968 the construction work of the 380 kV connection between
Florence and
Rome began with the aim of joining the high voltage electrical system of the north with that of the south centre.[92][93] Around the same time international high voltage connections with
France (380 kV Venaus-Villarodin, 1969) and
Switzerland were also put in place.[56][94]
In the same years undersea electrical cables were put in place to connect the peninsula and the islands of
Elba (1966)[95], Ischia (1967)[95][96] and
Sardinia through
Corsica (1967).[81]
1970-1980: the energy crisis and the search for new sources
Enel advert "For a better and more economical energy" during the years of the energy crisis (1976-1977)[97][98]
The decade of the 70s was distinguished by a major
energy crisis that led the company to drastic austerity measures and the establishment of a national energy plan that defined the objective of both building new power plants and the search for new
energy sources.
The energy crisis
In 1975, as a result of the
oil crisis and the
Austerity measures, and following the definition of the first National Energy Plan (PEN), the aim of the company became that of reducing Enel’s dependence on
hydrocarbons. This was to be achieved with the use of other energy sources, which included hydro, geothermal, increasing the use of coal, the waste cycle and in particular with the use of
nuclear energy.[62][99][100][101][102]
New plants
Several new plants were built in the course of the decade:[103]
In the early 70's the construction of the nuclear power station
Caorso (
Emilia-Romagna) - the first major
nuclear power plant in Italy (840-860 MW) - began. The station became operational in 1978.[104]
Between 1972 and 1978 the hydroelectric plant of Taloro was built in the province of
Nuoro (
Sardinia).[105]
In 1973 the hydroelectric plant of
San Fiorano became operational (
Lombardy).
In 1977 a thermoelectric power plant opened in Torre del Sale, near
Piombino (
Tuscany).[106]
At the end of the '70s the construction of thermal power plant of
Porto Tolle began (
Veneto). Its first completed section became active in
1980.[107][108]
Between 1973 and 1977 wells for the production of geothermal energy were drilled in Torre Alfina, in the province of
Viterbo (
Lazio).[114][115]
In 1974 the construction work of the Adriatic high voltage electric backbone was completed.[116][117][118]
The dam of Alto Gesso (
Piedmont) was completed in 1982 as part of the hydroelectric power station Luigi Einaudi
"Entracque".[119][120]
1980-1990: renouncing nuclear power
The 1980-1990 decade was characterised by the construction of new plants and testing of alternative forms of energy, as well as a gradual reduction of oil reliance that went from 75.3% in
1973 to 58.5% by 1985.[121][122][123]
Finally, in
1987, in the aftermath of the
Chernobyl disaster, the first referendum on nuclear power took place. This marked the end of
nuclear power in
Italy, the closing and suspension of all construction of nuclear power stations and the establishment of a new national energy plan.
New plants and alternative energy
In the same decade the following plants became active:[128]
In 1981, with the help of the European Economic Community, Enel became the first company worldwide to build a solar power station (the Eurelios power station in
Adrano,
Sicily) and experimentally connect it to the main electricity grid (the plant was shut in
1987)[137][104][138][139][140][141][142]
During
1985 the national center for the dispatch and control of the electricity network was gradually transferred from the center of
Rome to Settebagni, and made a part of a bigger European network of synchronisation of the production of electricity.[159][160]
Referendum, the closing of nuclear power plants and the new national energy plan
The nuclear power station of
Caorso (
Emilia-Romagna), that had been inactive since 1986 due to refuelling, was never reactivated and was finally closed in 1990
In 1987, the nuclear power station Enrico Fermi, in the village of Trino Vercelli (
Piedmont) was deactivated - with all plans of a second plant cancelled. The plan was finally shut in 1990
In 1988 the work started in 1982 for the construction of the nuclear power station
Alto Lazio, located in
Montalto di Castro, were interrupted. In 1989 it was converted into a multi-fuel plant
In
1988 the new National Energy Plan (PEN) established its key objectives as: increase energy efficiency; environmental protection; exploitation of national resources; diversification of supply sources from abroad; overall competitiveness of the production system.[165][166][167][168][169][161]
In 1999 the Bersani Decree mark the beginning of the liberalisation of the electricity market; a corporate restructuring of Enel began, with the unbundling of the production, transmission, dispatch and sale of energy.[171][172][173]
New plants and alternative energy
In 2000 Enel launched a project to connect
Italy and
Greece’s power grid by laying an underwater power line of 160 km length to connect
Otranto (
Apulia) with the Greek city of
Aetos (
Peloponnese) and capable of carrying 600 megawatts. The project, completed in 2002, had a total cost of 339 million euros.[174][175][176]
In
1993 Enel built the
photovoltaic plant of
Serre in the village of Persano (
Campania) - at the time this was largest of its kind in Europe with an installed capacity of 3.3 megawatts.[177][178][179][180]
Liberalisation, privatization and stock market launch
In
1991 Law No. 9/1991 sanctioned a first partial liberalization of the production of electricity generated from conventional sources and
renewable sources; companies were allowed to produce electricity for their own use with the obligation to hand over the excess amount to Enel.[183][184][161]
In
1999 the
D'Alema I Cabinet issued the Legislative Decree no. 79 of 16 March 1999 - (known as the
Bersani Decree) - to liberalise permanently the electricity sector. This opened up the possibility for other actors to operate in the energy market. Enel, that had so far been the only actor in the production, distribution and sale of electricity in Italy, had now to change its corporate structure by distinguishing the three phases and constituting three different companies: Enel Produzione, Enel Distribuzione and
Terna (Terna was sold by Enel in
2005). Moreover, Enel was given a maximum threshold of electrical energy production equal to 50% of the entire production on national soil.[185][186][173][187][188][189][190]
In
1999, 31.7% of the company – in its new structure – was privatised. Following privatization Enel was put on the stock market; its shares were listed on the
Italian Stock Exchange with a value of 4.3 euro per share; the total supply was of 4.183 million shares for a total value of 18 billion euros.[191][192][193][194][195][196]
2000-2010: environmental policies and internationalization
During the 2000-2010 decade, the company worked on policies to reduce the environmental impact of the production of energy and on a progressive internationalization of Enel through a number of mergers and acquisitions.[202][203][204]
In
2000, Enel - through its subsidiary Erga - acquired CHI Energy, a
renewable energy producer operating in the US and Canadian markets; the operation cost Enel $170 million.[212][213][214]
In
2001 Enel won the tender offer for the purchase of Viesgo - a
subsidiary of
Endesa – a company active on the Spanish market in the production and distribution of electricity with a net installed capacity of 2400
MW.[215][216][217][218]
In
2004 Enel was included in the
Dow Jones Sustainability Index, a stock market index that evaluates the financial performance of companies based on economic, environmental and social performance.[219][220][221]
In 2002 Enel divested Eurogen SpA, Elettrogen SpA and Interpower SpA in compliance with the Bersani Decree provisions on the liberalization of the electricity production.[222][223][224][225]
New plants and alternative energy
In
2001 Enel began the construction of a 1095km long
high-voltage transmission line in Brazil. [226][227]
In
2009, Enel launched the Archilede project: a new urban lighting system chosen by 1600 municipalities. This new intelligent lighting technology resulted in approximately 26 GWh per year of energy saving, and reduced
carbon dioxide emissions by 18,000 tons per year. [228][229][230]
In
2009, Enel opened a new
photovoltaic power station in the Park of
Villa Demidoff in Pratolino (
Florence).The project - called "Diamante" – was that of a plant capable of storing enough of the energy accumulated during the day in the form of hydrogen and use it during the night hours.[231][232][233]
In
2005 Enel assigned 62.75% (the remaining 37.25% was divested in 2006) of
Wind to Weather Investments S.a.r.l., a company belonging to the Egyptian businessman
Naguib Sawiris, at the time
CEO of
Orascom. [245][246][247]
2010-today
This period was marked by the appointment of a new
Board of Directors, that defined the reorganisation of assets abroad and reducing the company’s debt as the company’s main priorities for the future.
Industrial activities
In 2011, Enel opened the first pilot
carbon dioxide capture facility in the country, in the area of
Brindisi in the existing power plant ENEL Federico II.[248][249][250][251]
In 2011 - in
Isernia in the region of
Molise -
Enel Distribuzione built its first
Smart grid, a grid able to adjust effectively the two-way flow of electricity generated from renewable sources. The total investment for this project was of 10 million euro.[252][253][254].
In 2012 Enel and
Renault - as part of e-mobility and
Smart City - collaborated to manufacture a car model that would allow the customer to locate in real-time the nearest Enel charging point and retrieve information on its availability. Enel had previously collaborated with other car manufacturers such as
Opel,
Mercedes and
Piaggio.[255][256][257][258][259]
Corporate activities
In 2012 Enel sold the remaining 5.1% of
Terna which was still in its possession, thus exiting completely the high-voltage market.[260]
In 2013 Enel signed an agreement, in
Sochi, for the sale of 40% of Artic Russia, a
joint venture with
Eni, which in turn controlled 49% of SeverEnergia, for $ 1.8 billion.[261][262]
In 2011,
Enel Distribuzione, a company that manages the distribution network of Enel, and
NEC Corporation, signed a strategic partnership agreement with the aim of developing new technologies and solutions in the field of
Smart Grids.[270][271][272]
In 2014 Enel together with
Endesa, Accelerace, and FundingBox has initiated the INCENSe program (Internet Cleantech Enablers Spark), which was co-funded by the
European Commission for the promotion of technological innovation in
renewable energy, and was joined by over 250 start-ups from 30 countries in 2015.[278][279][280]
In 2011 Enel was admitted into the FTSE4Good Index of the
London Stock Exchange which measures businesses behaviour in terms of environmental sustainability, relationships with stakeholders, human rights, the quality of working conditions and fight against corruption.[282][283]
In 2011, Enel signed a cooperation framework agreement with the
World Food Programme of the
United Nations, in the fight against world hunger and climate change. The cost of the project was of 8 million euros and included the production and distribution of high-efficiency cooking stoves, the installation of
photovoltaic systems in the all WFP logistical premises, as well as support to humanitarian interventions.[284][285][286]
In 2012, Enel confirmed its participation at
Expo 2015, winning two contracts to build its
Smart Grid - an intelligent network to optimise energy distribution - on site.[287][288]
In
2014 and
2015 Enel was included in the STOXX Global ESG Governance Leaders index, an index that measures a company's environmental, social and governance practices.[289][290]
At the
Expo 2015, Enel presented Powering Education, launched together with
The Coca-Cola Company and Givewatts, a project aimed at increasing the consumption of renewable electricity in rural areas of
Kenya, through the distribution of solar lanterns to a number of schools in the territory.[291][292][293]
The group employs around 70,000 people, has over 60 million customers worldwide (56 million in the electricity market, and in the 6 million in the gas market) and a net installed capacity of over 89 GW, it is the first in Europe for number of customers and second, after
EdF, for capacity.[294][296][299][300][301][302][303][304][305]
Electricity production
Enel produces electricity through a number of different energy sources including
geothermal,
wind power,
solar power,
hydroelectric power, thermal and
nuclear power. In 2014 the Enel Group generated a total of 283.1 billion kWh of electricity, distributed 395.4 billion kWh, and sold 261 billion kWh.[306] Since 2008 Enel has entrusted the production of electricity from renewable sources to its subsidiary,
Enel Green Power.[307][308][309]
Summary table of net capacity of electricity production
Enel is also engaged in research and development activities for the production and transmission of electricity. These include:
the design and implementation of "hybrid plants" that combine the use of different sources and technology for energy storage, in order to increase the efficiency of plants.[347][348][349]
the development of Smart grids that increase efficiency and sustainability in the distribution of electricity, with the support of the European Community.[350][351]
the distribution and transformation of electricity and maintenance of the plants through
Enel Distribuzione.[355]
consumer protection services through Enel Electric Service - which guarantees the supply of energy at the fixed price established by the Authority for Electricity and Gas in those areas in which
Enel Distribuzione is the sole provider.[356]
street lighting and artistic lighting through
Enel Sole.
Following the liberalization of the market, Enel can no longer produce more than 50% of the total electricity produced in Italy[357], and like all other providers is binded by the universal service act and by European standards to connect to the grid anyone who requests so. Generally, Enel is subject to the supervision and decisions of the Authority for Electricity and Gas.[358][359]
International Activity
Enel's presence worldwide
Globally the group Enel, through its subsidiaries, covers the following areas and activities:
Conducting fundraising financial activities, and using the funds in investment operations through its subsidiaries Enel Investments, Enel Finance International and International Endesa (located in the
Netherlands).[368].
Global Trading: provides Enel Group companies as well as third parties both with goods to be used in
power plants and with optimisation services for energy production and distribution.[372]
Upstream Gas: in charge of investments for the exploration, production, and development of infrastructure for transporting gas.
Enel is present in
Europe (Bulgaria, France, Greece, Italy, Romania, Russia, Slovakia and Spain),
North America (Canada and United States) and
Latin America (Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico and Panama). Thorough its subsidiary
Endesa, Enel is also present in
Argentina,
Colombia,
Morocco,
Peru and
Portugal.[373]
Europe
Belgium
In
Belgium Enel produces energy for a total capacity of 406
MW with the Marcinelle Energie power plant. [374]
In the
Netherlands, Enel operates though a number of financing companies (Enel Finance International N.V., Enel Investment Holding B.V., International Endesa B.V.) that raise funds through
bond issuances and other forms of financing, and invest in the production and distribution of electricity. Enel is also present through Endesa Energia S.A., a company that sells gas and electricity to large customers in Europe.[392]
Romania
In
Romania, Enel has over 2.6 million customers through majority shares in a number of electricity distribution companies in
Sud-Muntenia, including in
Bucharest, in the
Banat and in
Dobruja.[393] The sale of these companies, announced in mid
2014, was withdrawn in early
2015. Through
Enel Green Power, Enel is also one of the country’s electricity manufacturers, with a total capacity of 534 MW.[393][394]
Russia
Enel is active in
Russia in a number of different areas: [395]
in the distribution of electricity with the installation of electronic electricity meters.
Slovakia
In
Slovakia Enel owns 66% of Slovenské Elektrárne, which was acquired in
2006. Enel produces electricity for a total of 5,700 MW[398] from
nuclear, thermal and hydroelectric power. [399] From the end of
2014, Enel has received several offers from buyers interested in acquiring its shares of Slovenské Elektrárne. [400]
Spain and Portugal
Through its participation in
Endesa, Enel is currently the main operator in
Spain and
Portugal, with a total electricity production of 23,474 MW (6,500 MW of which is renewable ) and over 11 million customers in the electricity market, and 1.2 million in the gas market.[401] In addition, Enel produces renewable energy with Enel Green Power España, for a total capacity of 1,745 MW in
Spain, and of 163 MW in
Portugal.[402][403]
Turkey
In
Turkey Enel takes part in the exploration for the production of geothermal energy with
Enel Green Power and the group Meteor Uzun.[404][405][406]
North America
United States and Canada
In the
United States of America and in
Canada Enel Green Power North America (formerly known as Enel North America[407]), a company controlled by
Enel Green Power, generates hydropower, geothermal and wind power, and biomass for a total capacity of 2,083 MW (1,980 MW in the US, and 103 MW in Canada).[408]
South America
In
2014 Enel - through Enel Green Power - is the second largest producer of solar energy in Latin America. Projects scheduled for the coming years are going to increase tenfold the photovoltaic production, turning the company into the first
photovoltaics manufacturer in the region.[409]
Argentina
In
Argentina Enel produces electricity through
Endesa (Chile)’s subsidiaries - Endesa Costanera, Hidroeléctrica El Chocón, and Dock Sud - for a total capacity of 4.522 MW.[410][411] Through EDESUR Enel distributes electricity to over 2.3 million customers in the country.[412]
Brazil
Enel produces electricity in
Brazil through its subsidiaries Endesa Fortaleza and Cachoeira Dourada for a total capacity of 987 MW. Enel also operates in the transmission of electricity through Endesa CIEN, as well as in the distribution through:[413]
Ampla, which covers both the city and the State of
Rio de Janeiro with over 2.6 million customers.
Coelce, in the State of
Ceará, with over 3.4 million customers.
Through one of its subsidiaries, Enel Brasil Participações Ltda, Enel Green Power produces electricity from renewable sources for a total of 376 MW - 203 MW of solar energy and 173 MW of hydroelectric power - with plans to expand to 378 MW. [413][414][415][416][417][418]
Chile
In
Chile Enel produces electricity for 6,590 MW. Through Enel Green Power Chile, Enel produces over 300 MW between hydropower and wind power, and is currently exploring options for geothermal energy. [419][420][421][422][423][424][425][426]
Following an agreements signed at the end of 2011 Enel currently explores for
geothermal energy sources in
Ecuador.[430]
Peru
In Peru Enel produces electricity for a total capacity of 1,802 MW. [431] Since 2011, Enel Green Power Peru has been working to develop alternative energy sources in the country and obtaining various concessions for electricity plants.[432][433][434][435][436][437]
Uruguay
Through Enel Green Power, Enel has been building a wind power plant for 50 MW in Uruguay.[438][439][440][441][442]
Central America
Costa Rica
Through Enel de Costa Rica S.A., a subsidiary of Enel Green Power Latin America, Enel produces electricity for a total of 55 MW, of which 24 MW is wind generated and 31 MW comes from hydroelectric power.[443][444] The new hydropower plant Chucas, currently under construction, will generate an additional 50 MW. [445][446][447][448][449][450][451]
Guatemala
Through Enel Green Power Guatemala, Enel produces electricity – generated entirely from hydroelectric power - for a total of 163 MW in the country.[452][453][454]
Enel Fortuna – a subsidiary of Enel Green Power Panama - produces energy with a total capacity of 300 MW, which is calculated as 23% of the national demand for 2014. The company’s plan is to build new
solar power plants in order to generate a further 29.9 MW.[460][461][462][463]
Africa
Algeria
In
Algeria, Enel holds 13.5 % of the gas reserves in the Illizi Basin, in the southeast of the country, and 18.4% of the field of Isarene.[381] In
2014, together with
Dragon Oil, Enel acquired the
gas exploration licenses for two additional areas, Msari Akabli and Tinrhert North. In Msari Akabli Enel is also going to be the first operator with a stake of 70%, while Tinrhert North it will own a 30% stake.[464][465][466][467][468][469]
Enel manufactures electricity in
Morocco with Energie Electrique de Tahaddart, for a total capacity of 384 MW.[474] In
2010,
Enel Green Power took part in the tender for the construction of a solar thermal power plant.[475][476] At the beginning of
2014Enel Green Power was given the objective to produce wind power in
Morocco.The plan was implemented in late 2014 with the participation in the call for the construction of 5 plants for a total capacity of 850 MW. [477][478][479][480]
South Africa
In
South AfricaEnel Green Power owns a photovoltaic power plant with a total capacity of 10MW. Enel’s future plan is to build a number of wind farms and photovoltaic power plants for a total capacity of 513 MW.[479][481][482][483][484][485]
Subsidiaries
Italy
Enel's headquarters in rome
In
Italy Enel owns the following companies that produce, distribute and resell electricity:[486]
The whole of Enel Produzione and, through Enel Produzione the following:
The whole of
Enel Energia [
it] – that deals with the sale of electricity and natural gas on the free market and to end customers. Enel Energia also owns 100% of Enel.si, a company that offers
renewable energy solutions to end customers and franchises “Punto Enel Green Power”. [489]
In the production of electricity from
renewable resources Enel owns 69.171% of
Enel Green Power – which in turn owns several subsidiaries worldwide, in Europe, North America, and South America. [490]
With regards to infrastructures and grids Enel owns: [486][491]
100% of Enel Sole – which deals with public and artistic lighting.
For trading on international markets and in
Italy, as well as for the procurement and sale of energy products including gas, Enel owns 100% of Enel Trade, which in turn owns 100% of Enel Trade Romania, Enel Trade Croatia and Enel Trade Serbia. [486][71]
Through Enel Trade, Enel also owns Nuove Energie, a company that specialises in the construction of
regasification plants. [71][486][492]
Europe
In
Belgium, through Enel Investment Holding, Enel owns 100% of Marcinelle Energie - owner of the homonymous power plant which was acquired in 2008 by Duferco Diversification. [493][494][495] The company was scheduled to be sold to
Gazprom with a letter of intent in 2013, at the beginning of 2014 the sale was pending regulatory changes and not yet completed.[496][497][498][499][500][501]
In
Spain - through its subsidiary Enel Iberoamerica (previously known as Enel Energy Europe[502]) – Enel holds 70.1% of
Endesa, acquired in 2009 with a stake of 92.06%.[503][504][505][506] The acquisition earned Enel the 2009 Platts Global Energy Award for Deal of the Year. [507]
Enel has been operational in
Russia since 2004[508]:
Since 2008, through Enel Investment Holding BV, it also owns 49.5% of the electricity supplier RusEnergoSbyt. [511]
In 2013
Rosneft, through NGK Itera, bought 40% of Enel’s stake in Arctic Russia BV, a company which owned 19.6% of SeverEnergia. [512][513][514][515][516][517]
Latin America
In
Argentina Enel controls Edesur thorugh
Enersis and Distrilec Inversora S.A., the latter is owned for 51.5% by
Enersis. [486][518]
In
Chile, through Enel Iberoamerica (formerly known as Enel Energy Europe[502]), as a result of the purchase of
Endesa and Endesa Latinoamerica S.A., Enel owns 60.62% of Enersis Chile. [519][520]
In
Peru, thorugh Enersis Chile, and following the cartel signed with Inkia America Holding in
2014, Enel owns a 58.6% stake of Edegel Peru. [521]
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^Fabio Silari (1989). Italia contemporanea. Vol. 176–177. Istituto nazionale per la storia del movimento di liberazione.
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abPublio Fedi; Fabrizio Liberati (1981). Miti e realtà: genesi, obiettivi e consuntivi della nazionalizzazione dell'industria elettrica, 1962-1977 : l'interpretazione economica dei bilanci in rosso. Mondadori Education.
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^Barbara Pozzo (2009). Le politiche energetiche comunitarie. Un'analisi degli incentivi allo sviluppo delle fonti rinnovabili. Giuffrè Editore. p. 104.
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^
abcdEugenio Grippo; Filippo Manca (2008). Manuale breve di diritto dell'Energia. Wolters Kluwer Italia. pp. 33, 64.
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^Stefano Nespor; Ada Lucia De Cesaris (2009). Codice dell'ambiente. Giuffrè Editore. pp. 1166–1174.
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^Geremia Gios; Ilaria Goio; Pietro Nervi (2014). Energia e territori di montagna. La produzione idroelettrica e il ruolo dei Consorzi dei BIM. Problemi e prospettive. FrancoAngeli. p. 47.
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^Stefano Battilossi (2001). Acea di Roma 1909-2000: da azienda municipale a gruppo multiservizi. FrancoAngeli. p. 260.
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^Giuseppe De Luca (2002). Le società quotate alla Borsa valori di Milano dal 1861 al 2000: profili storici e titoli azionari. Libri Scheiwiller.
^Salvatore Satta (1982). Studi in memoria di Salvatore Satta. Vol. 2. CEDAM. p. 1512.
^Il Consiglio di Stato: organo ufficiale del Centro italiano di studi amministrativi. Vol. 2. Italedi. 1966. p. 412.
^Sentenze e ordinanze della Corte costituzionale. Vol. 5. Giuffrè. 1966.
^
abcdMassimo Bergami; Pier Luigi Celli; Giuseppe Soda (2012). National Monopoly to Successful Multinational: the case of Enel. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 13.
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^Raffaele Cercola (1984). L'intervento esterno nello sviluppo industriale del Mezzogiorno: analisi della situazione attuale e delle tendenze recenti. Guida Editori. p. 122.
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^Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul disastro del Vajont: inventario e documenti. Rubbettino Editore. 2003. p. 23.
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^Maria Martellini (2007). Dal monopolio alla concorrenza. La liberalizzazione incompiuta di alcuni settori. FrancoAngeli. pp. 61–62.
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^Luigi Morati (1999). ABC dell'elettrotecnica e della illuminazione. Hoepli.
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^
abVirginio Cantoni; Silvestri Andrea (2009). Storia della tecnica elettrica. Cisalpino. p. 201.
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^Cite error: The named reference sito_radio_radicale was invoked but never defined (see the
help page).
^Les transports d'énergie: techniques nouvelles et conséquences économiques. Travaux du Colloque européen d'économie de l'énergie. Grenoble, 6-8 mai 1965 (in French). Mouton & Company. 1969. p. 95.
^Luca Mazzari (2011). Design per l'energia: strumenti e linguaggi per una produzione diffusa. Alinea Editrice. p. 72.
ISBN9788860556370.
^Alfonso Percuoco (2004). L'energia ed i poteri. Il mercato libero dell'energia elettrica tra realtà ed apparenze. FrancoAngeli. p. 58.
ISBN9788846455000.
^La Civiltà cattolica. Vol. Volume 1 - Quaderno 3040 - 19 febbraio 1977. La Civiltà Cattolica. 1977. {{
cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (
help)
^Antonio Cardinale; Alessandro Verdelli (2008). Energia per l'industria in Italia: la variabile energetica dal miracolo economico alla globalizzazione. FrancoAngeli. pp. 64–65.
ISBN9788846492647.
^Emilio Segrè (1977). La fisica dell'ultimo trentennio: prolusione tenuta per l'inaugurazione dell'anno accademico 1976-1977, nella cerimonia solenne del 12 novembre 1976, onorata dalla presenza del Presidente della Repubblica. Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. p. 5.
^L'Energia elettrica. Vol. 54. Centro elettrotecnico sperimentale italiano "Giacinto Motta". 1977.
^"Notiziario dell'ENEA.: Energia e innovazione". 34. Comitato nazionale per la ricerca e per lo sviluppo dell'energia nucleare e delle energie alternative. 1988. {{
cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (
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^Antonio Cardinale; Alessandro Verdelli. Energia per l'industria in Italia: la variabile energetica dal miracolo. p. 77.
^"Notiziario dell'ENEA: Energia e innovazione". 33. Comitato nazionale per la ricerca e per lo sviluppo dell'energia nucleare e delle energie alternative. 1987: 61. {{
cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (
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^"Congresso Internazionale Su Grandi Opere Sotterranee: Atti : Firenze, Italy 8-11 Giugno 1986". 2. Società italiana gallerie. June 1986. {{
cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (
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^
abcdCite error: The named reference le_politiche_energetiche was invoked but never defined (see the
help page).
^Giuseppe Augieri; Stefano Da Empoli (2002). Cambiare per sopravvivere: la questione energetica in Italia. Rubbettino Editore. p. 127.
ISBN9788849803891.
^Giancarlo Sturloni (2011). Energia nucleare. Alpha Test. pp. 128–129.
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^Marrone (2014). Le prospettive di crescita delle energie rinnovabili in Puglia: il parco delle biomasse. FrancoAngeli. p. 25.
ISBN9788891706027.
^Eugenio Grippo; Filippo Manca (2008). Manuale breve di diritto dell'energia. Wolters Kluwer Italia.
ISBN9788813274382.
^Antonio Cardinale; Alessandro Verdelli (2008). Energia per l'industria in Italia: la variabile energetica dal miracolo economico alla globalizzazione. FrancoAngeli.
ISBN9788846492647.
^Del Duro (2014). Dalla cogenerazione alla trigenerazione. Come ridurre la dipendenza energetica dell'Italia: Come ridurre la dipendenza energetica dell'Italia. FrancoAngeli. pp. 210-.
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^"Rapporto sulle performance ambientali OCSE Rapporti Sulle Performance Ambientali: Italia 2002". OECD. 2003: 46.
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^Luca Mazzari (2011). Design per l'energia: strumenti e linguaggi per una produzione diffusa. Alinea.
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^AA.VV. (2008). Energia Nucleare: nuove prospettive ed opportunità. Morlacchi.
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^
abLo Bianco; Capè; Sampek (2011). La guida del Sole 24 Ore al management dell'energia. Mercato e catena del valore, modelli di business, sistemi di gestione e normative. Il Sole 24 Ore Norme e Tributi.
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^Sergio Mariotti; Marco Multinelli (2005). Italia multinazionale 2004. Le partecipazioni italiane all'estero e estere in Italia. Rubettino. pp. 72–73.
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^Maria Rosaria Napolitano (2003). La gestione dei processi di acquisizione e fusione di imprese (in Italian). Franco Angeli. pp. 103–104.
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^"Enel"(PDF). Commissione Europea. Retrieved 14 April 2015.}
^Massimo Bergami; Pier Luigi Celli; Giuseppe Soda (2012). National Monopoly to Successful Multinational: the Case of Enel. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 58.
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^Cristiano Busco; Mark L. Frigo; Angelo Riccaboni; Paolo Quattrone (2013). Integrated Reporting: Concepts and Cases that Redefine Corporate Accountability. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 227.
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^"Enel". First Online. 2015. Retrieved 14 April 2015.
^"Enel". ANSA. 14 April 2014. Retrieved 14 April 2015.
^Vincenzo Sanguigni (2013). Lo sviluppo internazionale delle imprese operanti nel settore fotovoltaico. Giappichelli. pp. 178–180.
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^Luca Reteuna (2009). E dopo? Energie rinnovabili per tutti. Effata Editrice. p. 46.
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^Francesco Renda; Roberto Ricciuti (2010). Tra economia e politica: l’internazionalizzazione di Finmeccanica, Eni ed Enel. Firenze University Press.
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^Francesco Renda; Roberto Ricciuti (2010). Tra economia e politica: l'internazionalizzazione di Finmeccanica, Eni ed Enel. Firenze University Press. pp. 81–85.
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^"Belgio". Enel. 30 September 2014. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
^"Grecia e Bulgaria". Enel Green Power. 31 December 2013. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
^Francesco Renda; Roberto Ricciuti (2010). Tra economia e politica: l'internazionalizzazione di Finmeccanica, Eni ed Enel. Firenze University Press. pp. 81–85.
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^"Past Winners". Platts Global Energy Awards. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
^Francesco Renda; Roberto Ricciuti (2010). Tra economia e politica: l'internazionalizzazione di Finmeccanica, Eni ed Enel. Firenze University Press. pp. 81–85.
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^Heikki Eskelinen; Ilkka Liikanen; James W. Scott (2013). The EU-Russia Borderland: New Contexts for Regional Cooperation. Routledge.
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^"Enel Group". Endesa. 30 September 2014. Retrieved 18 March 2015.