Some studies have hypothesized that robotaxis operated in an
autonomous mobility on demand (AMoD) service could be one of the most rapidly adopted applications of autonomous cars at scale and a major mobility solution, especially in
urban areas.[1] Moreover, they could have a very positive impact on
road safety,
traffic congestion and
parking.[2][3][4][5][6] Robotaxis could also reduce
pollution and
energy consumption, since these services will most probably use
electric cars[7] and for most of the rides, less vehicle size and range is necessary compared to individually owned vehicles.[8] The expected reduction in number of vehicles means less
embodied energy;[9] however energy consumption for redistribution of empty vehicles must be taken into account.[10] Robotaxis would reduce operating costs by eliminating the need for a human driver, which might make it an affordable form of transportation and increase the popularity of
transportation-as-a-service (TaaS) as opposed to individual
car ownership.[11][12][13][14] Such developments could lead to job destruction[15][16] and new challenges concerning operator liabilities.[17] In 2023, some robotaxis caused congestion when they blocked roads due to lost cellular connectivity, and others failed to properly yield to emergency vehicles.[18] As of 2023[update] there has been only one fatality associated with a robotaxi,
a pedestrian who was hit by an Uber test vehicle in 2018.
Predictions of the widespread and rapid introduction of robotaxis – by as early as 2018 – have not been realized. There are a number of trials underway in cities around the world, some of which are open to the public and generate revenue. However, as of 2021, questions have been raised as to whether the progress of self-driving technology has stalled and whether issues of social acceptance, cybersecurity and cost have been addressed.[19][20]
Current status
Vehicle costs
So far all the trials have involved specially modified passenger cars with space for two or four passengers sitting in the back seats behind a partition.
LIDAR, cameras and other sensors have been used on all vehicles. The cost of early vehicles was estimated in 2020 at up to US$400,000 due to custom manufacture and specialized sensors.[21] However, the prices of some components such as LIDAR have fallen significantly.[22] In January 2021, Waymo stated its costs were approximately $180,000 per vehicle, and its operating cost at $0.30 per mile (~$0.19 per km), well below Uber and Lyft, but this excludes the cost of fleet technicians and customer support.[23]Baidu announced in June 2021 it would start producing robotaxis for 500,000 yuan ($77,665) each.[24] Tesla has discussed a sub-$25,000
Tesla Robotaxi, and as of 2023 is designing an assembly line that will accommodate the vehicle.[25]
Passenger tests
Several companies are testing robotaxi services, especially in the United States and in China. All tests so far only operate in a
geo-fenced area. Service areas for robotaxis, also known as the Objective Design Domain (ODD), are specially designated zones where robotaxis can safely provide service.[26]
Separate to these efforts have been trials of larger
shared autonomous vehicles on fixed routes with designated stops, able to carry between 6 and 10 passengers. These shuttle buses operate at low speeds.
Taxi licenses
In February 2018 Arizona granted Waymo a Transportation Network Company permit.[27]
In February 2022 the
California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) issued Drivered Deployment permits to Cruise and Waymo to allow passenger service in autonomous vehicles with a safety driver present in the vehicle. These carriers must hold a valid
California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) Deployment permit and meet the requirements of the CPUC Drivered Deployment program.[28] In June 2022, Cruise received approval to operate a commercial robotaxi service in
San Francisco.[29][30]
In August 2023, the CPUC approved granting additional operating authority for Cruise LLC and Waymo LLC to conduct commercial passenger service using vehicles without safety drivers in San Francisco.[33]The approval includes the ability for both companies to charge fares for rides at any time of day.[33]
History
First trials
In August 2016,
MIT spinoff
NuTonomy was the first company to make robotaxis available to the public, starting to offer rides with a fleet of 6 modified
Renault Zoes and
Mitsubishi i-MiEVs in a limited area in
Singapore.[34] NuTonomy later signed three significant partnerships to develop its robotaxi service: with
Grab,
Uber’s rival in Southeast Asia, with
Groupe PSA, which is supposed to provide the company with
Peugeot 3008 SUVs and the last one with
Lyft to launch a robotaxi service in
Boston.[35][36][37][38]
In August 2017, Cruise Automation, a self-driving startup acquired by
General Motors in 2016, launched the beta version of a robotaxi service for its employees in
San Francisco using a fleet of 46
Chevrolet Bolt EVs.[39][40]
Trials listed have a safety driver unless otherwise indicated. The commencement of a trial does not mean it is still active.
August 2016 -
NuTonomy launched its autonomous taxi service using a fleet of 6 modified Renault Zoes and Mitsubishi i-MiEVs in
Singapore
September 2016 -
Uber started allowing a select group of users in
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to order robotaxis from a fleet of 14 vehicles. Two Uber engineers were always in the front seats of each vehicle.
March 2017 - An Uber self-driving car was hit and flipped on its side by another vehicle that failed to yield. In October 2017, Uber started using only one test driver.
April 2017 -
Waymo started a large scale robotaxi tests in a geo-fenced suburb of
Phoenix, Arizona with a driver monitoring each vehicle. The service area was about 100 square miles (260 km2).[41] In November 2017 some testing without drivers began. Commercial operations began in November 2019.
August 2017 -
Cruise Automation launched the beta version robotaxi service for 250 employees (10% of its staff) in
San Francisco using a fleet of 46 vehicles.
March 2018 - A woman attempting to cross a street in
Tempe, Arizona at night
was struck and killed by an Uber vehicle while the onboard safety driver was watching videos. Uber later restarted testing, but only during daylight hours and at slower speeds.
December 2018 - Waymo started self-driving taxi service, dubbed Waymo One, in Arizona for paying customers.[44]
April 2019 -
Pony.ai launched a pilot system covering 50 km2 (19 sq mi) in Guangzhou, China for employees and invited affiliated, serving pre-defined pickup points.[45]
November 2019 - WeRide RoboTaxi began a pilot service with 20 vehicles in
Guangzhou and
Huangpu over an area of 144.65 km2 (55.85 sq mi)[46][47]
November 2019 -
Pony.ai started a three-month trial in Irvine, California with 10 cars and stops for pickup and drop off.[48]
April 2020 - Baidu opened its trial of 45 vehicles in
Changsha, China to public users for free trips, serving 100 designated spots on a set 135 km (84 mi) network. Services operation from 9:20am to 4:40pm with a safety-driver and a "navigator", allowing space for two passengers in the back.[49]
June 2020 -
DiDi robotaxi service begins operation in
Shanghai in an area that covers Shanghai's Automobile Exhibition Center, the local business districts, subway stations and hotels in the downtown area.[50]
August 2020. Baidu began offering free trips, with app bookings, on its trial in
Cangzhou, China which serves 55 designated spots over pre-defined routes.[51]
December 2020.
AutoX (which is backed by
Alibaba Group) launched a non-public trial of driverless robotaxis in
Shenzhen with 25 vehicles.[52] The service was then opened to the public in January 2021.[53][54]
February 2021 - Waymo One began limited robotaxi service in a number of suburbs of
San Francisco for a selection of its own employees. In August 2021 the public was invited to apply to use service, with places limited. A safety driver is present in each vehicles. The number of vehicles involved has not been disclosed.[55]
May 2021 -
Baidu commences a commercial robotaxi service with ten
Apollo Go vehicles in a 3 km2 (1.2 sq mi) area with eight pickup and drop-off stops, in Shougang Park in western
Beijing[56]
July 2021 - Baidu opened a pilot program to the public in
Guangzhou with a fleet of 30 sedans serving 60 sq mi (160 km2) in the
Huangpu district.[57] 200 designated spots are served between 9:30am and 11pm every day.[58]
July 2021 -
DeepRoute.ai began a free-of-charge trial with 20 vehicles in downtown Shenzhen serving 100 pickup and dropoff locations.[59]
February 2022 - Cruise opened up its driverless cars in San Francisco to the public.[60]
February 2023 - Zoox, the self-driving startup owned by
Amazon, carried passengers in its robotaxi for the first time in
Foster City, California.[61]
August 2023 - Waymo and Cruise were authorized by the CPUC to collect fares for driverless rides in San Francisco.
In December 2023, China finalized regulations on commercial robotaxi operation. Roboshuttles or robotrucks are required to maintain in-car drivers. Robotaxis can use remote operators. The robotaxi:remote operator ratio cannot exceed 3:1. Operators must be certified. Accident reporting rules specify required data.[62]
In 2024, Baidu Apollo, AutoX, Pony.ai, Didi and WeRide each operated in 10 to 25 cities, with fleets hundreds of robotaxis. As of April, 2024, Baidu Apollo had traveled over 100,000,000 km (62,000,000 mi) without a major accident. [62]
Notable commercial ventures
Uber Advanced Technology Group
Uber began development of self-driving vehicles in early 2015. In September 2016, the company started a trial allowing a select group of users of its
ride-hailing service in
Pittsburgh to order robotaxis from a fleet of 14 modified
Ford Fusions.[63] The test extended to
San Francisco with modified
Volvo XC90s before being relocated to
Tempe, Arizona in February 2017.[64][65]
In March 2017, one of Uber's robotaxis crashed in self-driving mode in Arizona, which led the company to suspend its tests before resuming them a few days later.[66][67] In March 2018, Uber paused self-driving vehicle testing after the
death of Elaine Herzberg in
Tempe, Arizona, a pedestrian struck by an Uber vehicle while attempting to cross the street, while the onboard engineer was watching videos.[68] Uber settled with the victim's family.[69][68]
In January 2021, Uber sold its self driving division, Advanced Technologies Group (ATG), to
Aurora Innovation for $4 billion while also investing $400 million into Aurora for a 26% ownership stake.[70][71]
Waymo
In early 2017,
Waymo, the
Google self-driving car project which became an independent company in 2016, started a large public robotaxi test in
Phoenix using 100 and then 500 more
Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid minivans provided by
Fiat Chrysler Automobiles as part of a partnership between the two companies.[72][73][74] Waymo also signed a deal with
Lyft to collaborate on self-driving cars in May 2017.[75] In November 2017,
Waymo revealed it had begun to operate some of its automated vehicles in Arizona without a safety driver behind the wheel.[76]
And in December 2018, Waymo started self-driving taxi service, dubbed Waymo One, in Arizona for paying customers.[44]
By November 2019, the service was operating autonomous vehicles without a safety backup driver.[77][78] The autonomous taxi service was operating in San Francisco as of 2021.[79] In December 2022, the company applied for a permit to operating self-driving taxi rides in California without a human operator present as backup.[80]
GM Cruise
In January 2020, GM subsidiary
Cruise exhibited the Cruise Origin, a
Level 4–5 driverless vehicle,[81] intended to be used for a
ride hailing service.[82]
In February 2022, Cruise started driverless taxi service in San Francisco.[60][83]
Also in February 2022, Cruise petitioned U.S. regulators (
NHTSA) for permission to build and deploy a self-driving vehicle without human controls.[84]
As of April 2022[update], the petition is pending.[85]
In April 2022, their partner
Honda unveiled its Level 4 mobility service partners to roll out in central Tokyo in the mid-2020s using the Cruise Origin.[86]
Unfortunately, there are signs that autonomously operated Cruise vehicles may interfere with emergency vehicles,[87] and has been culpable of at least one collision with a fire truck.[88]
On October 2, 2023, a Cruise vehicle operating autonomously (without driver supervision) collided with a pedestrian. Instead of stopping immediately, the vehicle misidentified the collision mechanics and presumed it was crashed into from the side. Consequently, the vehicle proceeded to drag the pedestrian under the car for 20 ft (6.1 m) until it came to a stop on the side of the road. As both the response of the vehicle was deemed unacceptable and the company appears to have withheld details of the crash from regulators, California regulators revoked the license to operate these cars. Cruise recalled all of its 950 vehicles in November 2023.[87][89]
These decisions were enacted in parallel with the exposure of safety risks, identified earlier within the Cruise company, regarding proper vehicle behavior around children and around construction sites.[90]
Other developments
Many automakers announced their plans in 2015–2018 to develop robotaxis before 2025 and specific partnerships have been signed between automakers, technology providers and service operators, including:
The startup
Zoox announcing in 2015 its ambition to build a robotaxi from scratch.[91]
Honda releasing in 2017 an autonomous concept car, NeuV, that aims at being a personal robotaxi.[98]
Ford Motor's plan in 2017 to develop a robotaxi by 2021 through partnerships with several startups.[99]
Ford Motor investing $1 billion in the startup
Argo AI in 2017 to develop autonomous cars and robotaxis;[100] the startup was disbanded in 2022 by Ford.[101]
Lyft and
Ford partnering in 2017 to add Ford's self-driving cars to Lyft's ride-hailing network;[102]Google leading a $1 billion investment in 2017 in
Lyft which could support
Waymo's robotaxi strategy; in 2021, Lyft's self-driving division was sold to
Toyota.[103]
Parsons Corporation announcing in 2017 a partnership with automated mobility operating system company Renovo.auto to deploy and scale AMoD services.[105]
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