The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the
Roman Empire centered in
Constantinople during
Late Antiquity and the
Middle Ages. The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the
fall of the West in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until the
fall of Constantinople to the
Ottoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the
Mediterranean world. The term "Byzantine Empire" was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves as "Romans". Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome to
Byzantium, the
adoption of state Christianity, and the predominance of
Greek instead of
Latin, modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier Roman Empire and the later Byzantine Empire.
The
Muslim conquest of
Sicily began in June 827 and lasted until 902, when the last major
Byzantine stronghold on the island,
Taormina, fell. Isolated fortresses remained in Byzantine hands until 965, but the island was henceforth under Muslim rule until
conquered in turn by the
Normans in the 11th century.
Although Sicily had been raided by the Muslims since the mid-7th century, these raids did not threaten
Byzantine control over the island, which remained a largely peaceful backwater. The opportunity for the
Aghlabid emirs of
Ifriqiya (present-day
Tunisia) came in 827, when the commander of the island's fleet,
Euphemius, rose in revolt against the
Byzantine EmperorMichael II. Defeated by loyalist forces and driven from the island, Euphemius sought the aid of the Aghlabids. The latter regarded this as an opportunity for expansion and for diverting the energies of their own fractious military establishment and alleviating the criticism of the Islamic scholars by championing jihad, and dispatched an army to aid him. Following the Arab landing on the island, Euphemius was quickly sidelined. An initial assault on the island's capital,
Syracuse, failed, but the Muslims were able to weather the subsequent Byzantine counter-attack and hold on to a few fortresses. With the aid of reinforcements from Ifriqiya and
al-Andalus, in 831 they took
Palermo, which became the capital of the new Muslim province. (Full article...)
The Despotate of the Morea (
Greek: Δεσποτᾶτον τοῦ Μορέως) or Despotate of Mystras (
Greek: Δεσποτᾶτον τοῦ Μυστρᾶ) was a province of the
Byzantine Empire which existed between the mid-14th and mid-15th centuries. Its territory varied in size during its existence but eventually grew to include almost all the southern
Greek peninsula now known as the
Peloponnese, which was known as the
Morea during the medieval and early modern periods. The territory was usually ruled by one or more sons of the current
Byzantine emperor, who were given the title of despotes (in this context it should not be confused with
despotism). Its capital was the fortified city of
Mystras, near ancient
Sparta, which became an important centre of the
Palaiologan Renaissance. (Full article...)
The Despotate was centred on the region of
Epirus, encompassing also
Albania and the western portion of
Greek Macedonia and also included
Thessaly and western Greece as far south as
Nafpaktos. Through a policy of aggressive expansion under
Theodore Komnenos Doukas the Despotate of Epirus also briefly came to incorporate central
Macedonia, with the establishment of the
Empire of Thessalonica in 1224, and
Thrace as far east as
Didymoteicho and
Adrianople, and was on the verge of recapturing Constantinople and restoring the Byzantine Empire before the
Battle of Klokotnitsa in 1230 where he was defeated by the
Bulgarian Empire. After that, the Epirote state contracted to its core in Epirus and Thessaly, and was forced into vassalage to other regional powers. It nevertheless managed to retain its autonomy until being conquered by the restored
PalaiologanByzantine Empire in ca. 1337. In the 1410s, the
Count palatine of Cephalonia and ZakynthosCarlo I Tocco managed to reunite the core of the Epirote state, but his successors gradually lost it to the advancing
Ottoman Empire, with the last stronghold,
Vonitsa, falling to the Ottomans in 1479. (Full article...)
A group of
Andalusian exiles led by
Abu Hafs Umar al-Iqritishi conquered Crete in either 824 or 827/828, and established an independent Islamic state. The Byzantines launched a campaign that took most of the island back in 842-43 under
Theoktistos, but the reconquest was not completed and would soon be reversed. Later attempts by the Byzantine Empire to recover the island failed, and for the approximately 135 years of its existence, the emirate was one of the major foes of Byzantium. Crete commanded the sea lanes of the Eastern Mediterranean and functioned as a forward base and haven for Muslim corsair fleets that ravaged the Byzantine-controlled shores of the
Aegean Sea. The emirate's internal history is less well known, but all accounts point to considerable prosperity deriving not only from piracy but also from extensive trade and agriculture. The emirate was brought to an end by
Nikephoros Phokas, who
successfully campaigned against it in 960–961, re-annexing the island to the Byzantine Empire. (Full article...)
Taking advantage of the situation, the
SeljukSultanate of Rum began seizing territory in western
Anatolia, until the
Nicaean Empire was able to
repulse the Seljuk Turks from the remaining territories still under Byzantine rule. Eventually Constantinople was
re-taken from the
Latin Empire in 1261 by the Nicaean Empire. The position of the Byzantine Empire in Europe remained uncertain due to the presence of the rivals in
Epirus,
Serbia and
Bulgaria. This, combined with the declining power of the
Sultanate of Rum (Byzantium's chief rival in Asia Minor) led to the removal of troops from Anatolia to maintain Byzantium's grip on
Thrace. (Full article...)
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The Great Palace of Constantinople (
Greek: Μέγα Παλάτιον, Méga Palátion;
Latin: Palatium Magnum), also known as the Sacred Palace (
Greek: Ἱερὸν Παλάτιον, Hieròn Palátion;
Latin: Sacrum Palatium), was the large imperial
Byzantine palace complex located in the south-eastern end of the peninsula now known as
Old Istanbul (formerly
Constantinople), in modern
Turkey. It served as the main imperial residence of the
Eastern Roman emperors until 1081 and was the centre of imperial administration for over 690 years. Only a few remnants and fragments of its foundations have survived into the present day. (Full article...)
The Fourth Crusade (November 10, 1202 - April 13, 1204) was a
Latin Christian armed expedition called by
Pope Innocent III. The stated intent of the expedition was to recapture the
Muslim-controlled city of
Jerusalem, by first defeating the powerful Egyptian
Ayyubid Sultanate. However, a sequence of economic and political events culminated in the Crusader army's 1202
siege of Zara and the 1204
sack of Constantinople, rather than the conquest of Egypt as originally planned. This led to the
Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae or the partition of the Byzantine Empire by the Crusaders and their Venetian allies leading to a period known as
Frankokratia, or "Rule of the Franks" in Greek.
The
Republic of Venice contracted with the Crusader leaders to build a dedicated fleet to transport their invasion force. However, the leaders greatly overestimated the number of soldiers who would embark from Venice, since many sailed from other ports, and the army that appeared could not pay the contracted price. In lieu of payment, the Venetian Doge
Enrico Dandolo proposed that the Crusaders back him in attacking the rebellious city of
Zadar (Zara) on the eastern Adriatic coast. This led in November 1202 to the
siege and sack of Zara, the first attack against a Catholic city by a Catholic Crusader army, despite
Pope Innocent III's calls for the Crusaders not to attack fellow Christians. The city was then brought under Venetian control. When the Pope heard of this, he temporarily
excommunicated the Crusader army. (Full article...)
The Byzantine Rite, also known as the Greek Rite or the Rite of Constantinople, is a
liturgical rite that is identified with the wide range of cultural, devotional, and canonical practices that developed in the
Eastern Christian church of
Constantinople.
The
canonical hours are extended and complex, lasting about eight hours (longer during
Great Lent) but are abridged outside of large
monasteries. An
iconostasis, a partition covered with
icons, separates
the area around the altar from the
nave. The
sign of the cross, accompanied by bowing, is made very frequently, e.g., more than a hundred times during the
divine liturgy, and there is prominent veneration of icons, a general acceptance of the congregants freely moving within the church and interacting with each other, and distinctive traditions of liturgical chanting. (Full article...)
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The Byzantine Iconoclasm (
Ancient Greek: Εἰκονομαχία,
romanized: Eikonomachía,
lit. 'image struggle', 'war on icons') were two periods in the history of the
Byzantine Empire when the use of
religious images or
icons was opposed by religious and imperial authorities within the
Ecumenical Patriarchate (at the time still comprising the Roman-Latin and the Eastern-Orthodox traditions) and the temporal imperial hierarchy. The First Iconoclasm, as it is sometimes called, occurred between about 726 and 787, while the Second Iconoclasm occurred between 814 and 842. According to the traditional view, Byzantine Iconoclasm was started by a ban on religious images promulgated by the Byzantine Emperor
Leo III the Isaurian, and continued under his successors. It was accompanied by widespread destruction of religious images and persecution of supporters of the veneration of images. The
Papacy remained firmly in support of the use of religious images throughout the period, and the whole episode widened the
growing divergence between the Byzantine and
Carolingian traditions in what was still a unified European Church, as well as facilitating the reduction or removal of Byzantine political control over
parts of the Italian Peninsula.
Iconoclasm is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture's own religious images and other symbols or monuments, usually for religious or political motives. People who engage in or support iconoclasm are called iconoclasts, Greek for 'breakers of icons' (εἰκονοκλάσται), a term that has come to be applied figuratively to any person who breaks or disdains established
dogmata or conventions. Conversely, people who revere or venerate religious images are derisively called "
iconolaters" (εἰκονολάτρες). They are normally known as "
iconodules" (εἰκονόδουλοι), or "iconophiles" (εἰκονόφιλοι). These terms were, however, not a part of the Byzantine debate over images. They have been brought into common usage by modern historians (from the seventeenth century) and their application to Byzantium increased considerably in the late twentieth century. The Byzantine term for the debate over religious imagery, iconomachy, means 'struggle over images' or 'image struggle'. Some sources also say that the Iconoclasts were against intercession to the saints and denied the usage of relics; however, it is disputed. (Full article...)
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A Hodegetria, or Virgin Hodegetria, is an
iconographic depiction of the
Theotokos (
Virgin Mary) holding the
Child Jesus at her side while pointing to him as the source of salvation for humankind. The Virgin's head usually inclines towards the child, who raises his hand in a blessing gesture. Metals are often used to draw attention to young Christ, reflecting light and shining in a way to embody divinity. In the
Western Church this type of icon is sometimes called Our Lady of the Way.
The most venerated
icon of the Hodegetria type, regarded as the original, was displayed in the
Monastery of the Panaghia Hodegetria in
Constantinople, which was built specially to contain it. Unlike most later copies it showed the Theotokos standing full-length. It was said to have been brought back from the
Holy Land by
Eudocia, the wife of emperor
Theodosius II (408–450), and to have been painted by
Saint Luke the evangelist, the attributed author of the
Gospel of Luke. The icon was double-sided, with a
crucifixion on the other side, and was "perhaps the most prominent cult object in Byzantium". (Full article...)
The richest interiors were finished with thin plates of
marble or coloured and patterned stone. Some of the columns were also made of marble. Other widely used materials were bricks and stone. Mosaics made of stone or glass
tesserae were also elements of interior architecture. Precious wood furniture, like beds, chairs, stools, tables, bookshelves and silver or golden cups with beautiful reliefs, decorated Byzantine interiors. (Full article...)
Following the
Norman conquest of Byzantine Italy and Saracen Sicily, the Byzantine emperor,
Michael VII Doukas (r. 1071–1078), betrothed his son to
Robert Guiscard's daughter. When Michael was deposed, Robert took this as an excuse to invade the Byzantine Empire in 1081. His army laid siege to Dyrrhachium, but his fleet was defeated by the
Venetians. On October 18, the Normans engaged a Byzantine army under Alexios I Komnenos outside Dyrrhachium. The battle began with the Byzantine right wing routing the Norman left wing, which broke and fled.
Varangian mercenaries joined in the pursuit of the fleeing Normans, but became separated from the main force and were massacred. Norman
knights in the centre attacked the Byzantine centre and routed it, causing the bulk of the Byzantine army to rout. (Full article...)
From the start, the regime faced numerous problems. The
Turks of
Asia Minor had begun conducting raids and expanding into Byzantine territory in Asia Minor by 1263, just two years after the enthronement of the first Palaiologos emperor
Michael VIII.
Anatolia, which had formed the very heart of the shrinking empire, was systematically lost to numerous Turkic ghazis, whose raids evolved into conquering expeditions inspired by
Islamic zeal, the prospect of economic gain, and the desire to seek refuge from the Mongols after the disastrous
Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243. The Palaiologoi were engaged on several fronts, often continually, while the empire's supply of food and manpower dwindled. In this period, the Byzantine Empire found itself continually at war, both civil and interstate, with most interstate conflicts being with other Christian empires. Most commonly, these comprised the
Second Bulgarian Empire, the
Serbian Empire, the remnants of the
Latin Empire and even the
Knights Hospitaller. (Full article...)
Initially built by Constantine the Great, the walls surrounded the new city on all sides, protecting it against attack from both sea and land. As the city grew, the famous double line of the Theodosian Walls was built in the 5th century. Although the other sections of the walls were less elaborate, they were, when well-manned, almost impregnable for any medieval besieger. They saved the city, and the
Byzantine Empire with it, during
sieges by the
Avar–Sassanian coalition,
Arabs,
Rus', and
Bulgars, among others. The fortifications retained their usefulness after the advent of
gunpowder siege cannons, which played a part in
the city's fall to
Ottoman forces in 1453 but were not able to breach its walls. (Full article...)
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Byzantine art comprises the body of artistic products of the
Eastern Roman Empire, as well as the nations and states that inherited culturally from the empire. Though the empire itself emerged from the
decline of western Rome and lasted until the
Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the start date of the Byzantine period is rather clearer in art history than in political history, if still imprecise. Many
Eastern Orthodox states in Eastern Europe, as well as to some degree the
Islamic states of the eastern
Mediterranean, preserved many aspects of the empire's culture and art for centuries afterward.
A number of contemporary states with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire were culturally influenced by it without actually being part of it (the "
Byzantine commonwealth"). These included
Kievan Rus', as well as some non-Orthodox states like the
Republic of Venice, which separated from the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century, and the
Kingdom of Sicily, which had close ties to the Byzantine Empire and had also been a Byzantine territory until the 10th century with a large Greek-speaking population persisting into the 12th century. Other states having a Byzantine artistic tradition, had oscillated throughout the Middle Ages between being part of the Byzantine Empire and having periods of independence, such as
Serbia and
Bulgaria. After the
fall of the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in 1453, art produced by Eastern Orthodox Christians living in the
Ottoman Empire was often called "post-Byzantine." Certain artistic traditions that originated in the Byzantine Empire, particularly in regard to icon painting and church architecture, are maintained in
Greece,
Cyprus,
Serbia,
Bulgaria,
Romania,
Russia and other Eastern Orthodox countries to the present day. (Full article...)
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The Byzantine navy was the
naval force of the
Byzantine Empire. Like the state it served, it was a direct continuation from its
Roman predecessor, but played a far greater role in the defence and survival of the state than its earlier iteration. While the fleets of the
Roman Empire faced few great naval threats, operating as a policing force vastly inferior in power and prestige to the
army,
command of the sea became vital to the very existence of the Byzantine state, which several historians have called a "maritime empire".
The first threat to Roman hegemony in the
Mediterranean Sea was posed by the
Vandals in the 5th century, but their threat was ended by the wars of
Justinian I in the 6th century. The re-establishment of a permanently maintained fleet and the introduction of the
dromon galley in the same period also marks the point when the Byzantine navy began departing from its late Roman roots and developing its own characteristic identity. This process would be furthered with the onset of the
early Muslim conquests in the 7th century. Following the loss of the
Levant and later Africa, the Mediterranean was transformed from a "Roman lake" into a battleground between the Byzantines and a series of Muslim states. In this struggle, the Byzantine fleets were critical, not only for the defence of the Empire's far-flung possessions around the Mediterranean basin, but also for repelling seaborne attacks against the imperial capital of
Constantinople itself. Through the use of the newly invented "
Greek fire", the Byzantine navy's best-known and feared secret weapon, Constantinople was saved from
several sieges and numerous naval engagements resulted in Byzantine victories. (Full article...)
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Byzantine law was essentially a continuation of
Roman law with increased
Orthodox Christian and
Hellenistic influence. Most sources define Byzantine law as the Roman legal traditions starting after the reign of
Justinian I in the 6th century and ending with the
Fall of Constantinople in the 15th century. Although future Byzantine codes and constitutions derived largely from Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis, their main objectives were idealistic and ceremonial rather than practical. Following
Hellenistic and
Near-Eastern political systems, legislations were tools to idealize and display the sacred role and responsibility of the emperor as the holy monarch chosen by God and the incarnation of law "nómos émpsychos", thus having philosophical and religious purposes that idealized perfect Byzantine kingship.
Though during and after the
European Renaissance Western legal practices were heavily influenced by Justinian's Code (the Corpus Juris Civilis) and Roman law during classical times, Byzantine law nevertheless had substantial influence on Western traditions during the
Middle Ages and after. (Full article...)
Mount Athos has been inhabited since ancient times and is known for its long Christian presence and historical monastic traditions, which date back to at least 800 AD during the
Byzantine era. Because of its long history of religious importance, the well-preserved agrarian architecture within the monasteries, and the preservation of the flora and fauna around the mountain, the
monastic community of Mount Athos was added to the
UNESCOWorld Heritage List in 1988. (Full article...)
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The Byzantine Empireunder the Macedonian dynasty underwent a revival during the late 9th, 10th, and early 11th centuries. Under the
Macedonian emperors, the empire gained control over the
Adriatic Sea,
Southern Italy, and all of the territory of the
TsarSamuil of Bulgaria. The Macedonian dynasty was characterised by a cultural revival in spheres such as philosophy and the arts, and has been dubbed the "
Golden Age" of
Byzantium.
The cities of the empire expanded, and affluence spread across the provinces because of the newfound security. The population rose, and production increased, stimulating new demand for
trade. (Full article...)
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The
Byzantine Empire was ruled by the
Isaurian dynasty (or Syrian dynasty) from 717 to 802. The Isaurian
emperors were successful in defending and consolidating the empire against the
caliphates after the onslaught of the
early Muslim conquests, but were less successful in Europe, where they suffered setbacks against the
Bulgars, had to give up the
Exarchate of Ravenna, and lost influence over Italy and the
papacy to the growing power of the
Franks.
The Isaurian dynasty is chiefly associated with
Byzantine iconoclasm, an attempt to restore divine favour by purifying the Christian faith from excessive adoration of
icons, which resulted in considerable internal turmoil. (Full article...)
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The first Arab siege of Constantinople in 674–678 was a major conflict of the
Arab–Byzantine wars, and the first culmination of the
Umayyad Caliphate's expansionist strategy towards the
Byzantine Empire, led by Caliph
Mu'awiya I. Mu'awiya, who had emerged in 661 as the ruler of the Muslim Arab empire following a
civil war, renewed aggressive warfare against Byzantium after a lapse of some years and hoped to deliver a lethal blow by capturing the Byzantine capital of
Constantinople.
As reported by the Byzantine chronicler
Theophanes the Confessor, the Arab attack was methodical: in 672–673 Arab fleets secured bases along the coasts of
Asia Minor, and then proceeded to install a loose blockade around Constantinople. They used the peninsula of
Cyzicus near the city as a base to spend the winter, and returned every spring to launch attacks against the
city's fortifications. Finally, the Byzantines, under Emperor
Constantine IV, managed to destroy the Arab navy using a new invention, the liquid incendiary substance known as
Greek fire. The Byzantines also defeated the Arab land army in Asia Minor, forcing them to lift the siege. The Byzantine victory was of major importance for the survival of the Byzantine state, as the Arab threat receded for a time. A peace treaty was signed soon after, and following the outbreak of
another Muslim civil war, the Byzantines even experienced a brief period of ascendancy over the Caliphate. The siege was the first major Arab defeat in 50 years of expansion and temporarily stabilized the Byzantine Empire after decades of war and defeats. (Full article...)
John VI Kantakouzenos or Cantacuzene (
Greek: Ἰωάννης Ἄγγελος Παλαιολόγος Καντακουζηνός, Iōánnēs Ángelos Palaiológos Kantakouzēnós;
Latin: Johannes Cantacuzenus; c. 1292 – 15 June 1383) was a
Byzantine Greeknobleman, statesman, and
general. He served as
grand domestic under
Andronikos III Palaiologos and
regent for
John V Palaiologos before reigning as
Byzantine emperor in his own right from 1347 to 1354. Deposed by his former ward, he was forced to retire to a monastery under the name Joasaph Christodoulos (
Greek: Ἰωάσαφ Χριστόδουλος) and spent the remainder of his life as a monk and historian. At age 90 or 91 at his death, he was the longest-lived of the Roman emperors. (Full article...)
The son of the general
Manuel Erotikos Komnenos, he was orphaned at an early age, and was raised under the care of Emperor
Basil II. He made his name as a successful military commander, serving as commander-in-chief of the eastern armies between
c. 1042 and 1054. In 1057 he became the head of a conspiracy of the dissatisfied eastern generals against the newly crowned
Michael VI Bringas. Proclaimed emperor by his followers on 8 June 1057, he rallied sufficient military forces to defeat the loyalist army at the
Battle of Hades. While Isaac was willing to accept a compromise solution by being appointed Michael's heir, a powerful faction in
Constantinople, led by the ambitious
Patriarch of Constantinople,
Michael Keroularios, pressured Michael to abdicate. After Michael abdicated on 30 August 1057, Isaac was crowned emperor in the
Hagia Sophia on 1 September. (Full article...)
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Anna Dalassene (
Greek: Ἄννα Δαλασσηνή; ca. 1025/30 – 1 November 1100/02) was an important
Byzantine noblewoman who played a significant role in the rise to power of the
Komnenoi in the eleventh century. She exercised great influence over her son, the Emperor
Alexios I Komnenos, who gave her the title Augusta. She also administered the empire as regent during his many absences from Constantinople on long military campaigns during the early part of his reign. As empress-mother, she exerted more influence and power than the empress-consort,
Irene Doukaina, a woman whom she hated because of past intrigues with the
Doukai. (Full article...)
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Peter the Patrician (
Latin: Petrus Patricius,
Greek: Πέτρος ὁ Πατρίκιος, Petros ho Patrikios;
c. 500–565) was a senior
Byzantine official,
diplomat, and
historian. A well-educated and successful
lawyer, he was repeatedly sent as envoy to
Ostrogothic Italy in the prelude to the
Gothic War of 535–554. Despite his diplomatic skill, he was not able to avert war, and was imprisoned by the
Goths in
Ravenna for a few years. Upon his release, he was appointed to the post of magister officiorum, head of the imperial secretariat, which he held for an unparalleled 26 years. In this capacity, he was one of the leading ministers of Emperor
Justinian I (r. 527–565), playing an important role in the Byzantine emperor's religious policies and the relations with
Sassanid Persia; most notably he led the negotiations for the
peace agreement of 562 that ended the 20-year-long
Lazic War. His historical writings survive only in fragments, but provide unique source material on early Byzantine ceremonies and diplomatic issues between Byzantium and the Sassanids. (Full article...)
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Donor portrait of the megas doux Alexios Apokaukos, from a collection of the "Works of
Hippocrates" commissioned by him in the early 1340s. Alexios is depicted in the garb of his office, wearing a richly decorated kabbadion and the skaranikon, a ceremonial headdress depicting the reigning emperor.
Leo Sgouros (
Greek: Λέων Σγουρός),
Latinized as Leo Sgurus, was a
Greek independent lord in the northeastern
Peloponnese in the early 13th century. The scion of the magnate
Sgouros family, he succeeded his father as hereditary lord in the region of Nauplia. Taking advantage of the disruption caused by the
Fourth Crusade, he made himself independent, one of several local rulers that appeared throughout the
Byzantine Empire during the final years of the
Angeloi dynasty. He expanded his domain into
Corinthia and
Central Greece, eventually marrying the daughter of former
Byzantine emperorAlexios III Angelos (r. 1195–1203). His conquests, however, were short-lived, as the Crusaders forced him back into the Peloponnese. Blockaded in his stronghold on the
Acrocorinth, he committed
suicide in 1208. (Full article...)
Leo III the Isaurian (
Greek: Λέων ὁ Ἴσαυρος,
romanized: Leōn ho Isauros;
Latin: Leo Isaurus;
c. 685 – 18 June 741), also known as the Syrian, was
Byzantine Emperor from 717 until his death in 741 and founder of the
Isaurian dynasty. He put an end to the
Twenty Years' Anarchy, a period of great instability in the Byzantine Empire between 695 and 717, marked by the rapid succession of several emperors to the throne, along with ending the continual defeats and territorial losses the Byzantines had suffered during the 7th century. He also successfully defended the Empire against the invading
Umayyads and
forbade the veneration of icons. (Full article...)
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Alexios I Komnenos (
Greek: Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός,
translit.Aléxios Komnēnós, c. 1057 – 15 August 1118),
LatinizedAlexius I Comnenus, was
Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118. Although he was not the first emperor of the
Komnenian dynasty, it was during his reign that the Komnenos family came to full power and initiated a hereditary succession to the throne. Inheriting a collapsing empire and faced with constant warfare during his reign against both the
Seljuq Turks in
Asia Minor and the
Normans in the western
Balkans, Alexios was able to curb the Byzantine decline and begin the military, financial, and territorial recovery known as the
Komnenian restoration. His appeals to Western Europe for help against the Turks was the catalyst that sparked the
First Crusade. (Full article...)
His reign was marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the Empire". This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct
Western Roman Empire. His general,
Belisarius, swiftly conquered the
Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. Subsequently, Belisarius,
Narses, and other generals conquered the
Ostrogothic kingdom, restoring
Dalmatia,
Sicily,
Italy, and
Rome to the empire after more than half a century of rule by the
Ostrogoths. The
praetorian prefect Liberius reclaimed the south of the
Iberian Peninsula, establishing the province of
Spania. These campaigns re-established Roman control over the western Mediterranean, increasing the Empire's annual revenue by over a million
solidi. During his reign, Justinian also subdued the Tzani, a people on the east coast of the
Black Sea that had never been under Roman rule before. He engaged the
Sasanian Empire in the east during
Kavad I's reign, and later again during
Khosrow I's reign; this second conflict was partially initiated due to his ambitions in the west. (Full article...)
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John Kourkouas (
Greek: Ἰωάννης Κουρκούας,
romanized: Ioannes Kourkouas,
fl.
c. 900–946), also transliterated as Kurkuas or Curcuas, was one of the most important generals of the
Byzantine Empire. His success in battles against the
Muslim states in the East reversed the course of the centuries-long
Arab–Byzantine wars and set the stage for Byzantium's eastern conquests later in the century.
Kourkouas belonged to a family of
Armenian descent that produced several notable Byzantine generals. As commander of an imperial bodyguard regiment, Kourkouas was among the chief supporters of
EmperorRomanos I Lekapenos (
r. 920–944) and facilitated the latter's rise to the throne. In 923, Kourkouas was appointed commander-in-chief of the Byzantine armies along the eastern frontier, facing the
Abbasid Caliphate and the semi-autonomous Muslim
border emirates. He kept this post for more than twenty years, overseeing decisive Byzantine military successes that altered the strategic balance in the region. (Full article...)
Constantine V (
Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος,
translit.Kōnstantīnos;
Latin: Constantinus; July 718 – 14 September 775) was
Byzantine emperor from 741 to 775. His reign saw a consolidation of Byzantine security from external threats. As an able military leader, Constantine took advantage of
civil war in the Muslim world to make limited offensives on the
Arab frontier. With this eastern frontier secure, he undertook repeated campaigns against the
Bulgars in the
Balkans. His military activity, and policy of settling Christian populations from the Arab frontier in
Thrace, made Byzantium's hold on its Balkan territories more secure. He was also responsible for important military and administrative innovations and reforms.
Religious strife and controversy was a prominent feature of his reign. His fervent support of
Iconoclasm and opposition to
monasticism led to his vilification by some contemporary commentators and the majority of later Byzantine writers, who denigrated him with the nicknames "Dung-Named" (
Greek: Κοπρώνυμος,
translit.Koprónimos;
Latin: Copronymus), because he allegedly defaecated during his baptism, similarly "Anointed with Urine" (
Greek: Οὐραλύφιος,
translit.Ouralýphios;
Latin: Uralyphius), and "the Equestrian" (
Greek: Καβαλλινος,
translit.Kaballinos;
Latin: Caballinus), referencing the excrement of horses. (Full article...)
Image 13
Bardanes, nicknamed Tourkos, "the Turk" (
Greek: Βαρδάνης ὁ Τοῦρκος,
romanized: Bardanēs ho Tourkos,
fl. 795–803), was a
Byzantine general who launched an unsuccessful rebellion against Emperor
Nikephoros I (
r. 802–811) in 803. Although a major supporter of
Byzantine empressIrene of Athens (
r. 797–802), soon after her overthrow he was appointed by Nikephoros as commander-in-chief of the
Anatolian armies. From this position, he launched a revolt in July 803, probably in opposition to Nikephoros's economic and religious policies. His troops marched towards
Constantinople, but failed to win popular support. At this point, some of his major supporters deserted him and, reluctant to engage the loyalist forces in battle, Bardanes gave up and chose to surrender himself. He retired as a monk to a monastery he had founded. There he was blinded, possibly on Nikephoros's orders. (Full article...)
Image 14
A mosaic in
Hagia Sophia showing Leo VI paying homage to Christ
Leo VI, also known as Leothe Wise (
Greek: Λέων ὁ Σοφός,
romanized: Léōn ho Sophós, 19 September 866 – 11 May 912), was
Byzantine Emperor from 886 to 912. The second ruler of the
Macedonian dynasty (although his parentage is unclear), he was very well read, leading to his
epithet. During his reign, the renaissance of letters, begun by his predecessor
Basil I, continued; but the
empire also saw several military defeats in the
Balkans against
Bulgaria and against the Arabs in
Sicily and the
Aegean. His reign also witnessed the formal discontinuation of several ancient Roman institutions, such as the separate office of
Roman consul. (Full article...)
In his early life, Maximus was a civil servant, and an aide to the
Byzantine EmperorHeraclius. He gave up this life in the political sphere to enter the monastic life. Maximus had studied diverse schools of philosophy, and certainly what was common for his time, the Platonic dialogues, the works of Aristotle, and numerous later Platonic commentators on Aristotle and Plato, like
Plotinus,
Porphyry,
Iamblichus, and
Proclus. When one of his friends began espousing the
Christological position known as
Monothelitism, Maximus was drawn into the controversy, in which he supported an interpretation of the
Chalcedonian formula on the basis of which it was asserted that
Jesus had both a human and a divine
will. Maximus is
venerated in both the
Catholic and
Eastern Orthodox Churches. He was eventually persecuted for his Christological positions; following a trial, his tongue and right hand were mutilated. (Full article...)
Image 16
Michael Psellos (left) with his student, Byzantine emperor
Michael VII Doukas
Michael Psellos or Psellus (
Greek: Μιχαὴλ Ψελλός,
romanized: Michaḗl Psellós, Byzantine Greek:[mixaˈilpseˈlːos]) was a
Byzantine Greek monk, savant, writer, philosopher, imperial courtier, historian and music theorist. He was born in 1017 or 1018, and is believed to have died in 1078, although it has also been maintained that he remained alive until 1096. He served as a high ranking courtier and advisor to several
Byzantine emperors and was instrumental in the re-positioning of power of those emperors. Psellos has made lasting contributions to Byzantine culture by advocating for the revival of Byzantine
classical studies, which would later influence the
Italian Renaissance, as well as by interpreting
Homeric literature and
Platonic philosophy as precursors and integral components of
Christian doctrine. His texts combined
theology, philosophy, and psychology. Among his most famous works are his Commentary on Plato’s Teachings on the Origin of the Soul, and the Chronographia, a series of biographies from emperor
Basil II to
Nikephoros III, which serves as a valuable source on the history of the 11th century
Byzantine Empire. (Full article...)
Image 17
Nikephoros Phokas (
Greek: Νικηφόρος Φωκᾶς,
romanized: Nikēphoros Phōkas; died 895/6 or
c. 900), usually surnamed the Elder to distinguish him from his grandson, Emperor
Nikephoros II Phokas, was one of the most prominent
Byzantine generals of the late 9th century, and the first important member of the
Phokas family. As a youth he was taken into the personal retinue of Emperor
Basil I the Macedonian, rising quickly to the posts of protostrator and then governor of
Charsianon, whence he fought with success against the
Arabs. In
c. 886 he led a major expedition in
southern Italy, where his victories laid the foundation for the
Byzantine resurgence in the peninsula. After his return, he was raised to the post of
Domestic of the Schools, in effect commander-in-chief of the army, which he led with success against the Arabs in the east and the
Bulgarians of Tsar
Simeon in the
Balkans. He died either in 895/6 or, less likely, sometime
c. 900. Contemporaries and later historians lauded him for his military ability and character. Both of his sons later succeeded him as Domestics of the Schools. His grandsons Nikephoros and
Leo were likewise distinguished generals, while the former became emperor in 963–969, spearheading the recovery of several lost provinces from the Arabs. (Full article...)
Alexios Komnenos (
Greek: Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός;
c. 1135/42 – after 1182) was a
Byzantine aristocrat and courtier. A son of
Andronikos Komnenos and nephew of Emperor
Manuel I Komnenos, he rose to the high rank of prōtostratōr in 1167. In 1176 he participated in the
Myriokephalon campaign where, following the death of his older brother
John, he was raised to the titles of prōtosebastos and prōtovestiarios. Following Manuel's death in 1180, he won the favour, and reportedly became the lover, of Empress-
dowagerMaria of Antioch. Through her he ruled the Byzantine Empire for two years as de facto regent of the underage emperor
Alexios II Komnenos. The aristocracy challenged his dominance, led by the princess
Maria Komnene, who plotted to assassinate the prōtosebastos. The plot was discovered and most conspirators arrested, but Maria and her husband fled to the
Hagia Sophia, protected by Patriarch
Theodosios Borradiotes and the common people of
Constantinople.
Mounting tensions resulted in a popular uprising against Alexios' regime on 2 May 1181, (modern scholars have proposed other dates as well), which ended in a mutual reconciliation. His power shaken, the prōtosebastos reacted by punishing Borradiotes for his role in the affair. Overwhelming opposition, both among the people and the aristocracy, forced him to recall Borradiotes soon after. These events left Alexios in poor shape to oppose the advance of the adventurer
Andronikos I Komnenos, who moved against Constantinople from the east. The generals dispatched against Andronikos were defeated or defected, and the usurper entered the city in April 1182. The prōtosebastos Alexios was deposed, publicly humiliated, and
mutilated. His fate thereafter is not known. (Full article...)
Belisarius (Latin pronunciation:[bɛ.lɪˈsaː.ri.ʊs];
Greek: Βελισάριος;
c. 500 – 565) was a military commander of the
Byzantine Empire under the emperor
Justinian I. Belisarius was instrumental in the reconquest of much of the
Mediterranean territory belonging to the former
Western Roman Empire, which had been lost less than a century prior. Belisarius is considered one of the greatest military commanders in history and the greatest of all Byzantine generals.
One of the defining features of Belisarius' career was his success despite varying levels of available resources. His name is frequently given as one of the so-called "
Last of the Romans". He conquered the
Vandal Kingdom of North Africa in the
Vandalic War in nine months and conquered much of Italy during the
Gothic War. He also defeated the Vandal armies in the battle of
Ad Decimum and played an important role at
Tricamarum, compelling the Vandal king,
Gelimer, to surrender. During the Gothic War, despite being significantly outnumbered, he and his troops recaptured the city of Rome and then held out against great odds during the
siege of Rome. (Full article...)
Image 20
Constantine VII crowned by Christ, detail of an ivory plaque,
Pushkin Museum, AD 945
Most of his reign was dominated by co-regents: from 913 until 919 he was under the regency of his mother, while from 920 until 945 he shared the throne with
Romanos Lekapenos, whose daughter
Helena he married, and his sons. Constantine VII is best known for the Geoponika (τά γεοπονικά), an important
agronomic treatise compiled during his reign, and three, perhaps four, books; De Administrando Imperio (bearing in Greek the heading Πρὸς τὸν ἴδιον υἱὸν Ῥωμανόν), De Ceremoniis (Περὶ τῆς Βασιλείου Τάξεως), De Thematibus (Περὶ θεμάτων Άνατολῆς καὶ Δύσεως), and Vita Basilii (Βίος Βασιλείου), though his authorship of the Vita Basilii is not certain. (Full article...)
Married to a
Thessalian Vlach woman, John first appears leading Vlach troops alongside his father in the lead-up to the
Battle of Pelagonia in 1259. His defection to the camp of Emperor
Michael VIII Palaiologos was crucial in the battle, which ended with the crushing defeat of the Epirotes'
Latin allies and opened the way for the recovery of
Constantinople and the re-establishment of the
Byzantine Empire under Palaiologos in 1261. John quickly returned to the side of his father and brother,
Nikephoros, and assisted them in recovering
Epirus and
Thessaly. After Michael II died, John Doukas became ruler of Thessaly with his seat at
Neopatras, whence Western chroniclers often erroneously called him "Duke of Neopatras". (Full article...)
Image 22
Harald Sigurdsson (
Old Norse: Haraldr Sigurðarson;
c. 1015 – 25 September 1066), also known as Harald III of Norway and given the epithet Hardrada (harðráði; modern
Norwegian: Hardråde, roughly translated as "stern counsel" or "hard ruler") in the
sagas, was
King of Norway from 1046 to 1066. Additionally, he unsuccessfully claimed both the
Danish throne until 1064 and the
English throne in 1066. Before becoming king, Harald had spent around fifteen years in exile as a mercenary and military commander in
Kievan Rus' and as a chief of the
Varangian Guard in the
Byzantine Empire. In his
chronicle,
Adam of Bremen called him the "Thunderbolt of the North".
In 1030 aged fifteen, Harald fought in the
Battle of Stiklestad together with his half-brother
Olaf Haraldsson (later Saint Olaf). Olaf sought to reclaim the Norwegian throne, which he had lost to the Danish king
Cnut the Great two years prior. In the battle, Olaf and Harald were defeated by forces loyal to Cnut, and Harald was forced into exile to Kievan Rus' (the sagas' Garðaríki). Thereafter, he was in the army of Grand Prince
Yaroslav the Wise, becoming captain, until he moved on to
Constantinople with his companions around 1034. In Constantinople, he rose quickly to become the commander of the Byzantine Varangian Guard, seeing action on the
Mediterranean Sea, in
Asia Minor, Sicily, possibly in the
Holy Land,
Bulgaria and in Constantinople itself, where he became involved in the imperial dynastic disputes. Harald amassed considerable wealth during his time in the Byzantine Empire, which he shipped to Yaroslav in Kievan Rus' for safekeeping. In 1042, he left the Byzantine Empire, returning to Kievan Rus' in order to prepare to reclaim the Norwegian throne. Possibly to Harald's knowledge, in his absence the Norwegian throne had been restored from the Danes to Olaf's illegitimate son
Magnus the Good. (Full article...)
Image 23
Miniature portrait in a manuscript of
George Pachymeres' Historia, early 14th century
It was also at this time that the focus of the Byzantine military shifted to the Balkans, against the
Bulgarians, leaving the Anatolian frontier neglected. His successors could not compensate for this change of focus, and both the
Arsenite schism and two civil wars which occurred from
1321–1328 and
1341–1347 undermined further efforts toward territorial consolidation and recovery, draining the empire's strength, economy, and resources. Regular conflict between Byzantine successor states such as
Trebizond,
Epirus, Bulgaria and
Serbia resulted in permanent fragmentation of former Byzantine territory and opportunity for increasingly successful conquests of expansive territories by post-
SeljukAnatolian beyliks, most notably that of
Osman, later called the
Ottoman Empire. (Full article...)
Born in Naissus,
Dacia Mediterranea (now
Niš, Serbia), he was the son of
Flavius Constantius, a Roman army officer of
Illyrian origin who had been one of the four rulers of the
Tetrarchy. His mother,
Helena, was a
Greek woman of low birth, probably from
Asia Minor in modern
Turkey. Later canonised as a
saint, she is traditionally credited for the conversion of her son. Constantine served with distinction under the Roman emperors
Diocletian and
Galerius. He began his career by campaigning in the eastern provinces (against the
Persians) before being recalled in the west (in AD 305) to fight alongside his father in the
province of
Britannia. After his father's death in 306, Constantine was acclaimed as augustus (emperor) by his army at
Eboracum (
York, England). He eventually emerged victorious in
the civil wars against emperors
Maxentius and
Licinius to become the sole ruler of the
Roman Empire by 324. (Full article...)
Cyril (
Greek: Κύριλλος,
romanized: Kýrillos; born Constantine, 826–869) and Methodius (Μεθόδιος, Methódios; born Michael, 815–885) were brothers,
ByzantineChristian theologians and
missionaries. For their work evangelizing the
Slavs, they are known as the "Apostles to the Slavs".
... that in the nocturnal Battle of Kapetron, the
Byzantines in the flanks defeated their
Seljuk opponents, but on the next morning learned of their
Georgian allies' defeat in the centre?