The History of Bihar is one of the most varied in India.[1]Chirand, on the northern bank of the
Ganga River, in
Saran district, has an archaeological record dating from the
Neolithic age (c. 2500 – 1345 BC).[2][3] Regions of Bihar—such as Magadha, Mithila and
Anga—are mentioned in religious texts and epics of ancient India.
Mithila is believed to be the centre of Indian power in the Later
Vedic period (c. 1100 – 500 BC). Mithila first gained prominence after the establishment of the ancient
Videha Kingdom.[4] The kings of the Videha were called
Janakas. A daughter of one of the Janaks of Mithila,
Sita, is mentioned as consort of
Lord Rama in the
Hindu epicRamayana.[5] The kingdom later became incorporated into the
Vajjika League which had its capital in the city of
Vaishali, which is also in Mithila.[6]
Magadha was the centre of Indian power, learning and culture for about a thousand years. One of India's greatest empires, the
Maurya Empire, as well as two major
pacifist religions,
Buddhism and
Jainism, arose from the region that is now Bihar.[7] Empires of the Magadha region, most notably the Maurya and
Gupta Empire, unified large parts of the
Indian subcontinent under their rule.[8] Their capital
Pataliputra, adjacent to modern-day
Patna, was an important political, military and economic centre of Indian civilisation during the ancient and classical periods of Indian history. Many ancient
Indian texts, aside from religious epics, were written in ancient Bihar. The play Abhijñānaśākuntala being the most prominent.
The present-day region of Bihar overlaps with several pre-Mauryan kingdoms and republics, including Magadha, Anga and the Vajjika League of
Mithila. The latter was one of the world's earliest known republics and had existed in the region since before the birth of
Mahavira (c. 599 BC).[9][10] The classical Gupta dynasty of Bihar presided over a period of cultural flourishing and learning, known today as the Golden Age of India.
The
Pala Empire also made their capital at Pataliputra once during
Devapala's rule. After the Pala period, Bihar came under the control of various kingdoms. The
Karnat dynasty came into power in the Mithila region in the 11th century and they were succeeded by the
Oiniwar dynasty in the 14th century. Aside from Mithila, there were other small kingdoms in medieval Bihar. The area around Bodh Gaya and much of Magadha came under the Buddhist
Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya. The
Khayaravala dynasty were present in the southwestern portions of the state until the 13th century.[11] For much of the 13th and 14th centuries, parts of Western Bihar were under the control of the
Jaunpur Sultanate. These kingdoms were eventually supplanted by the Delhi Sultanate who in turn were replaced by the
Sur Empire. After the fall of the Suri dynasty in 1556, Bihar came under the
Mughal Empire and later was the staging post for the British colonial
Bengal Presidency from the 1750s and up to the war of 1857–58.[clarification needed] On 22 March 1912, Bihar was carved out as a separate province in the
British Indian Empire. Since 1947 independence, Bihar has been an original state of the Indian Union.
The earliest proof of human activity in Bihar is
Mesolithic habitational remains at
Munger.
Prehistoricrock paintings have been discovered in the hills of
Kaimur,
Nawada and
Jamui. It was the first time that a
Neolithic settlement was discovered in the thick of the
alluvium, over the bank of the
Ganges at
Chirand.[12] The rock paintings depict a prehistoric lifestyle and natural environment. They depict the sun, the moon, stars, animals, plants, trees, and rivers, and it is speculated that they represent love for nature. The paintings also highlight the daily life of the early humans in Bihar, including activities like hunting, running, dancing and walking.[13] The rock paintings in Bihar are not only identical to those in central and
southern India but are also akin to those in
Europe and
Africa. The rock paintings of Spain's
Alta Mira and France's
Lascaux are almost identical to those found in Bihar.[14]
Bronze Age (3300–1300 BC)
Parallel to Indus Valley Civilization
In 2017 bricks dated to the mature
Harappan period was discovered from the outskirts of the ancient city of
Vaishali.[15][16] Any in-depth research which may establish definite links between
Indus Valley Civilization and Bihar is yet to be conducted. A round seal excavated from Vaishali dated 200 BC-200 AD has three inscribed letters which according to
Indus Valley Civilization scholar
Iravatham Mahadevan represents formulas inscribed on the Indus seals and dates it to the earliest layers of excavation i-e 1100 BC.[17][18]
Rigvedic period
Kikata was an ancient kingdom in what is now India, mentioned in the
Vedas. Some scholars have believed that they were the forefathers of
Magadhas because Kikata is used as a synonym for Magadha in the later texts.[19] It probably lay to the south of Magadha Kingdom in a hilly landscape.[20] A section in the
Rigveda (RV 3.53.14) refers to the Kīkaṭas (Hindi:कीकट), a tribe which most scholars have placed in present-day southwestern Bihar (Magadha) such as Weber and Zimmer[21] while some scholars such as Oldenburg and Hillebrandt dispute that. According to
Puranic literature Kikata is placed near
Gaya. It is described as extending from Caran-adri to Gridharakuta (
vulture peak),
Rajgir. Some scholar such as A. N. Chandra places Kikata in a hilly part of the Indus Valley based on the argument that countries between Magadh and the Indus Valley are not mentioned such as Kuru, Kosala etc. Kikatas were said to be Anarya or non-vedic people who didn't practice Vedic rituals like soma, According to
Sayana, Kikatas didn't perform worship, were infidels and nastikas. The leader of Kikatas has been called Pramaganda, a usurer.[22][23] It is unclear whether Kikatas were already present in Magadh during the Rigvedic period or they migrated there later.[24] Like Rigveda attributes of Kikatas, Atharvaveda also speaks about southeastern tribes like Magadhas and Angas as hostile tribe who lived on the borders of Brahmanical India.[25]Bhagvata Purana mentions about the birth of Buddha among Kikatas.[26]
Some scholars have placed the
Kīkaṭa kingdom, mentioned in the
Rigveda, in
Bihar (
Magadha) because Kikata is used as a synonym for Magadha in the later texts;[21] however, according to
Michael Witzel, Kīkaṭa was situated south of
Kurukshetra in eastern Rajasthan or western Madhya Pradesh.[27] The placement in Bihar is also challenged by historical geographers Mithila Sharan Pandey (who argues they must have been near
Western Uttar Pradesh),[28] and O.P. Bharadwaj (who places them near the
Sarasvati River),[29] and historian
Ram Sharan Sharma, who believes they were probably in Haryana.[30]
Northern black polished ware
Urbanization in the Gangetic plains began with the appearance of
Northern black polished ware period and archaeologists trace the origin of this pottery in
Magadh region of Bihar. The oldest dated site of NBWP is in Juafardih,
Nalanda, which is carbon dated to 1200 BC.[31]
Videha is mentioned in both the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata as comprising parts of Bihar and extending into small parts of
Nepal. The Hindu goddess
Sita is described as the princess of Videha, daughter of Raja
Janak. The capital of Videha is believed to be either
Janakpur (in Present-day Nepal),[32] or Baliraajgadh (in Present-day
Madhubani district, Bihar, India).[33][34]
Anga Kingdom
Some sources say that
Anga tribe was not
Vedic, it was captured by the
VedicAryans and according to some legends, Anga was the first
Vedic king of Anga kingdom which justifies the naming of the kingdom. The
Anga tribe is believed to have been very powerful in the early
vedic period. However, with the emergence of the kingdom of
Magadha and
Vaishali,
Anga lost its importance.
Karna, a friend of
Duryodhana, was the king of
Anga.
Magadha Kingdom
The
Magadha was established by a semi-mythical king
Jarasandha, who the
Puranas state was a king of the
Brihadrathas dynasty and one of the descendants of
King Puru. Jarasandha appears in the
Mahabharatha as the "Magadhan Emperor who rules all India" and meets with an unceremonious ending. Jarasandha was the greatest among them during epic times. His capital,
Rajagriha or
Rajgir, is now a modern hill resort in Bihar. Jarasandha's continuous assault on the
Yadava kingdom of
Surasena resulted in their withdrawal from central India to western India. Jarasandha was a threat not only to the Yadavas but also to the
Kurus. Pandava
Bhima killed him in a mace dual aided by the intelligence of
Vasudeva Krishna.
Thus,
Yudhishthira, the Pandava King, could complete his campaign of bringing the whole of India into his empire. Jarasandha had friendly relations with
Chedi king
Shishupala,
Kuru king
Duryodhana and
Anga king
Karna. His descendants, according to the
Vayu Purana, ruled Magadha for 1000 years followed by the
Pradyota dynasty, which ruled for 138 years from 799 to 684 BC[contradictory]. However, there is insufficient evidence to prove the historicity of this claim. These rulers are nonetheless mentioned in the Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain texts.
Palaka, the son of the Avanti king Pradyota, conquered
Kaushambi, increasing the kingdom's power.
In the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city-states, dominated
Magadha. Many of these states have been mentioned in Buddhist and
Jaina literature as far back as 1000 BC. By 500 BC, sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as the Mahajanapadas —
Kasi,
Kosala,
Anga, Magadha,
Vajji (or Vriji),
Malla,
Chedi,
Vatsa (or Vamsa),
Kuru,
Panchala,
Matsya (or Maccha),
Surasena,
Assaka,
Avanti,
Gandhara and
Kamboja— stretched across the
Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharashtra.
Vajji covered the modern
North Bihar,
Magadha covered South-western Bihar while
Anga covered South-eastern Bihar. Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by 500/400 BC, that is by the time of
Siddhartha Gautama. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha.[35] In 537 BC, Siddhartha Gautama attained the state of
enlightenment in
Bodh Gaya, Bihar. Around the same time,
Mahavira who was born in a place called Kundalagrama in the ancient kingdom of Kundalpur in [vaishli] in modern-day Bihar. He was the 24th
JainTirthankara, propagated a similar theology, that was to later become Jainism.[36] However, Jain orthodoxy believes it predates all known time. The
Vedas are believed to have documented a few Jain Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the sramana movement.[37] The Buddha's teachings and Jainism had doctrines inclined toward asceticism and were preached in
Prakrit, which helped them gain acceptance amongst the masses. They have profoundly influenced practices that Hinduism and Indian spiritual orders are associated with namely,
vegetarianism, prohibition of animal slaughter and
ahimsa (non-violence).
While the geographic impact of Jainism was limited to India, Buddhist nuns and monks eventually spread the teachings of
Buddha to
Central Asia,
East Asia,
Tibet,
Sri Lanka and South East Asia.
Nalanda University and
Vikramshila University one of the oldest residential universities were established in Bihar during this period.
According to both Buddhist texts and Jain texts, one of Pradyota tradition was that the King's son would kill his father to become the successor. During this time, it was reported that there were high crimes in Magadha. The people rose up and elected
Shishunaga to become the new king, who destroyed the power of the Pradyotas and created the
Shishunaga dynasty.
Shishunaga (also called King
Sisunaka) was the founder of a dynasty collectively called the
Shishunaga dynasty. He established the
Magadha empire (in 684 BC). Due in part to this bloody dynastic feuding, it is thought that a civil revolt led to the emergence of the Shishunaga dynasty. This empire, with its original capital in
Rajgriha, later shifted to
Pataliputra (both currently in the Indian state of Bihar). The Shishunaga dynasty was one of the largest empires of the
Indian subcontinent.
The Hariyanka dynasty king
Bimbisara was responsible for expanding the boundaries of his kingdom through matrimonial alliances and conquest. The land of
Kosala fell to Magadha in this way. Estimates place the territory ruled by this early dynasty at 300 leagues in diameter and encompassing 80,000 small settlements.
Bimbisara is contemporary with the Buddha, and is recorded as a lay disciple. Bimbisara (543–493 BC) was imprisoned and killed by his son who became his successor,
Ajatashatru (491–461 BC), under whose rule, the dynasty reached its largest extent.
Licchavi was an ancient—before the birth of
Mahavira—
republic in what is now the Bihar state of India.[10]Vaishali was the capital of Licchavi and the
Vajjika League. The
Mahavamsa tells that a courtesan in that city,
Ambapali, was famous for her beauty, and helped in large measure in making the city prosperous.[41]
Ajatashatru went to war with the Licchavi several times. Ajatashatru is thought to have ruled from 551 BC to 519 BC and moved the capital of the Magadha kingdom from
Rajagriha to
Pataliputra. The
Mahavamsa tells that Udayabhadra eventually succeeded his father, Ajatashatru, and that under him Pataliputra became the largest city in the world. He is thought to have ruled for sixteen years. The kingdom had a particularly bloody succession. Anuruddha eventually succeeded Udaybhadra through assassination, and his son Munda succeeded him in the same fashion, as his son
Nagadasaka.
This dynasty lasted until 424 BC when it was overthrown by the
Nanda dynasty. This period saw the development in Magadha of two of India's major religions.
Gautama Buddha in the 6th or 5th century BC was the founder of Buddhism, which later spread to East Asia and
Southeast Asia, while
Mahavira revived and propagated the ancient
sramanic religion of Jainism.
In 321 BC, exiled general
Chandragupta Maurya, with the help of
Chanakya, founded the
Maurya dynasty after overthrowing the reigning Nanda king
Dhana Nanda to establish the
Maurya Empire. The Maurya Empire (322–185 BC), ruled by the
Mauryan dynasty, was geographically extensive, powerful and a political-military empire in
ancient India. During this time, most of the subcontinent was united under a single government for the first time. The exceptions were present-day
Tamil Nadu and
Kerala (which was a
Tamil kingdom at that time). The empire had its capital city at
Pataliputra (near modern
Patna). The Mauryan empire under Chandragupta Maurya would not only conquer most of the Indian subcontinent, defeating and conquering the
satraps left by
Alexander the Great but also push its boundaries into
Persia and Central Asia, conquering the
Gandhara region. Chandragupta Maurya then defeated an invasion led by
Seleucus I, a Greek general from Alexander's army. Chandragupta Maurya's minister,
Kautilya Chanakya, wrote the Arthashastra, a treatise on economics, politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war and religion.
Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son,
Bindusara, who expanded the kingdom over most of present-day India, other than the extreme south and east. At its greatest extent, the Empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the
Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now
Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, annexing
Balochistan and much of what is now
Afghanistan. The Empire was extended into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and
Bindusara, but it excluded the republic of Kalinga.
The Maurya Empire was inherited by
Bindusara's son,
Ashoka. Ashoka initially sought to expand his kingdom but in the aftermath of the carnage caused during the invasion of Kalinga, he renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of non-violence or
ahimsa after converting to Buddhism. Following the conquest of Kalinga, Ashoka ended the military expansion of the empire and led the empire through more than 40 years of relative peace, harmony and prosperity. Ashoka's response to the Kalinga War is recorded in the
Edicts of Ashoka,[43] one of the oldest preserved historical documents of the Indian subcontinent.[44][45][46]
According to Rock Edicts of Ashoka:
"Beloved-of-the-Gods [Ashoka], King Priyadarsi, conquered the Kalingas eight years after his coronation. 150000 were deported, 100000 were killed and many more died (from other causes). After the Kalingas had been conquered, Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the Dhamma, a love for the Dhamma and instruction in Dhamma. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods feels deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas."
The Mauryan Empire under Ashoka was responsible for the proliferation of Buddhist ideals across the whole of East Asia and South-East Asia. Under Ashoka, India was a prosperous and stable empire of great economic and military power whose political influence and trade extended across Asia and into Europe. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka embraced Buddhism. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka and South-East Asia. The Lion Capital of Ashoka at
Sarnath, is the
emblem of India. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra, the Edicts of Ashoka and
Ashokavadana are primary sources of written records of the Mauryan times.
Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings.
Brihadrata, the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, held territories that had shrunk considerably from the time of emperor Ashoka, although he still upheld the Buddhist faith.
Middle Kingdoms (230 BC – 1206 AD)
Middle Kingdom
The Gupta Empire had their capital at Pataliputra
The
Pala Empire and neighbourhoods in the 9th century CE.
The current structure of the
Mahabodhi Temple dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE.Palas.
Nalanda is considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. It was the centre of Buddhist learning and research in the world from 450 to 1193 CE. It reached its height under the
Shunga Dynasty
The
Shunga dynasty was established in 185 BC, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, when the king Brihadratha, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was assassinated by the then commander-in-chief of the
Mauryanarmed forces,
Pushyamitra Shunga.
The
Gupta dynasty ruled from around 240 to 550 AD. The origins of the Gupta Dynasty are shrouded in obscurity. The Chinese traveller
Xuanzang provides the first evidence of the Gupta kingdom in Magadha. He came to India in 672 AD and heard of '
Maharaja Sri-Gupta' who built a temple for Chinese pilgrims near Mrigasikhavana.
Ghatotkacha (c. 280–319) AD, had a son named
Chandra Gupta I (Not to be confused with
Chandragupta Maurya (340–293 BC), founder of the Mauryan Empire). In a breakthrough deal, Chandra Gupta I was married to a woman from Lichchhavi—the main power in Magadha.
Samudragupta succeeded Chandra Gupta I in 335, and ruled for about 45 years, until he died in 380. He attacked the kingdoms of Shichchhatra, Padmavati,
Malwas, the
Yaudheyas, the
Arjunayanas, the
Maduras and the
Abhiras, and merged them in his kingdom. By his death in 380, he had incorporated over twenty kingdoms into his realm, his rule extended from the Himalayas to the river
Narmada and from the
Brahmaputra to the
Yamuna. He gave himself the titles King of Kings and World Monarch. He is considered the Napoleon of India. Chandra Gupta I performed Ashwamedha Yajna to underline the importance of his conquest.
Chandra Gupta II, the Sun of Power (Vikramaditya), ruled from 380 until 413. Only marginally less successful than his father, Chandra Gupta II expanded his realm westwards, defeating the
SakaWestern Kshatrapas of
Malwa,
Gujarat and
Saurashtra in a campaign lasting until 409. Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son
Kumaragupta I. Known as the Mahendraditya, he ruled until 455. Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley, the
Pushyamitras, rose in power to threaten the empire.
Skandagupta is generally considered the last of the great rulers.[52] He defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with invading
Hephthalites or
Huna, from the northwest. He repulsed a Huna attack c. 477.
Skandagupta died in 487 and was succeeded by his son
NarasimhaguptaBaladitya.
The Gupta Empire had their capital at Pataliputra. The difference between the Gupta Empire's and Mauryan Empire's administration was that in the Mauryan administration power was centralised but in the Gupta administration power was more decentralised. The empire was divided into provinces and the provinces were further divided into districts. Villages were the smallest units. The kingdom covered
Gujarat,
North-East India, south-eastern Pakistan,
Odisha, northern
Madhya Pradesh and eastern India with capital at
Pataliputra, modern
Patna. All forms of worship were carried out in
Sanskrit.
Rapid strides were made in
astronomy during this period.
Aryabhata and
Varahamihira were two great astronomers and
mathematicians. Aryabhata stated that the earth moved around the sun and rotated on its axis. Aryabhata, who is believed to be the first to come up with the concept of
zero, postulated the theory that
the Earth moves round the Sun, and studied solar and lunar
eclipses. Aryabhata's most famous work was Aryabhatiya.
Varahamihira's most important contributions are the encyclopaedic
Brihat-Samhita and Pancha-Siddhantika (Pañcasiddhāntikā). Metallurgy also made rapid strides. The proof can be seen in the Iron Pillar of
Vaishali[54] and near
Mehrauli on the outskirts of
Delhi, which was brought from Bihar.[55]
In medicine, the Guptas were notable for their establishment and patronage of free hospitals. Although progress in physiology and biology was hindered by religious injunctions against contact with dead bodies, which discouraged dissection and anatomy, Indian physicians excelled in pharmacopoeia, caesarean section, bone setting, and skin grafting. Indeed, Hindu medical advances were soon adopted in the
Arab and Western worlds.
Ayurveda was the main medical system.
According to some historian's work,
The Gupta Empire is considered by many scholars to be the "classical age" of Hindu and Buddhist art and literature. The Rulers of the Gupta Empire were strong supporters of developments in the arts, architecture, science, and literature. The Gupta Empire circulated a large number of gold coins, called dinars, with their inscriptions. The Gupta Dynasty also left behind an effective administrative system. During times of peace, the Gupta Empire system was decentralised, with only taxation flowing to the capital at Pataliputra. During times of war, however, the government realigned and fought its invaders. The system was soon extinguished in fighting off the Hunnic Invasions.[56][57]
The Later Gupta dynasty ruled the
Magadha region in eastern India between the 6th and 7th centuries AD. The Later Guptas succeeded the
imperial Guptas as the rulers of Magadha, but there is no evidence connecting the two dynasties; these appear to be two distinct families.[58] The Later Guptas are so-called because the names of their rulers ended with the suffix "-gupta", which they might have adopted to portray themselves as the legitimate successors of the imperial Guptas.[59]
Pala Dynasty
The
Pala Empire was a Buddhist dynasty that ruled from the
Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. The name Pala (
ModernBengali: পালpal) means protector and was used as an ending to the names of all Pala monarchs. The Palas were followers of the
Mahayana and
Tantric schools of Buddhism.
Gopala was the first ruler of the dynasty. He came to
power in 750 in
Gaur by a
democraticelection. This event is recognised as one of the first
democratic elections in
South Asia since the time of the
Mahā Janapadas. He reigned from 750 to 770 and consolidated his position by extending his control over all of
Bengal as well as parts of
Bihar. The Buddhist
dynasty lasted for four centuries (750–1120 CE).
The empire reached its peak under
Dharmapala and
Devapala. Dharmapala extended the empire into the northern parts of the
Indian Subcontinent. This triggered once again the power struggle for the control of the subcontinent. Devapala, successor of Dharmapala, expanded the empire to cover much of
South Asia and beyond. His empire stretched from
Assam and
Utkala in the east,
Kamboja (modern-day
Afghanistan) in the north-west and
Deccan in the south. According to Pala copperplate inscription, Devapala exterminated the Utkalas, conquered the Pragjyotisha (Assam), shattered the pride of the
Huna, and humbled the lords of
Gurjara-Pratiharas,
Gurjara and the
Dravidas.
Bihar was largely in ruins when visited by
Xuanzang, the famous Buddhist monk from China, and suffered further damage at the hands of
Muslim raiders in the 12th century.[62] With the advent of foreign aggression and eventual foreign subjugation of India, Bihar passed through very uncertain times during the medieval period.
Muhammad of Ghor attacked this region of the Indian subcontinent many times.
Muhammad of Ghor's armies destroyed many Buddhist structures, including the great Nalanda University.[63][11]
The Buddhism of Magadha was finally swept away by the Islamic invasion under
Muhammad Bin Bakhtiar Khilji, one of
Qutb-ud-Din's generals destroyed monasteries fortified by the
Sena armies, during which many of the
viharas and the famed universities of
Nalanda and
Vikramshila were destroyed, and thousands of Buddhist monks were massacred in the 12th century.[64][65][66][67][68][11]
In 1097 AD, the Karnat dynasty of Mithila emerged on the Bihar/Nepal border area and maintained capitals in
Darbhanga and
Simraongadh. The dynasty was established by
Nanyadeva, a military commander of Karnataka origin. Under this dynasty, the
Maithili language started to develop with the first piece of Maithili literature, the
Varna Ratnakara being produced in the 14th century by Jyotirishwar Thakur. The Karnats also carried out raids into
Nepal. They fell in 1324 following the invasion of
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.[69][11]
During the late Pala period, the area of Magadha was ruled by Buddhist kings with the title of Pīṭhīpati. They were patrons of the
Mahabodhi temple and referred to themselves as magadhādipati (rulers of Magadha). They maintained a presence in the region until at least the 13th century.[70][11]
The Oiniwar dynasty emerged after the fall of the Karnats and ruled North Bihar as vassals of the
Delhi Sultanate. Under the king, Shiva Singh, they did attempt to revolt against the throne in Delhi although this was eventually defeated. They were contemporaries of the
Jaunpur Sultanate.[71]
After the fall of the Pala empire, the
Cheros established a tribal polity that ruled some parts of southern Bihar extending into modern-day
Jharkhand from the 12th century to the 16th century until
Mughal rule after which they were reduced to chieftains/Zamindars.[72]
The Khayaravalas were the ruling dynasty of the
Son river valley in South Bihar and Jharkhand during the 11th to 13th centuries. Notable kings of this dynasty include
Pratapdhavala and
Shri Pratapa. They were also involved in the construction of
Rohtasgarh fort.[73]
The Jaunpur Sultanate emerged in 1394 and controlled much of Western Bihar. Many coin hoards and inscriptions from the Jaunpur period have been found in Bihar. [74]
Medieval Bihar saw a period of glory lasting about six years during the rule of
Sher Shah Suri, who hailed from
Sasaram.
Sher Shah Suri built the longest road of the Indian subcontinent, the
Grand Trunk Road, which started at
Calcutta (Bengal) and ended at
Peshawar, now Pakistan. The economic reforms carried out by Sher Shah, such as the introduction of the Rupee and Custom Duties, are still used in the Republic of India. He revived the city of Patna, where he built his headquarters.[75][76]
During the period of Islamic rule, much of Bihar was under the sway of local
Zamindars or chieftains who maintained their armies and territories. These chieftains retained much of their power until the arrival of the British East India Company.[81]
In 1576, after the
Battle of Tukaroi, Mughal Emperor
Akbar conquered
Bengal Sultanate and added it to his empire domain. He divided Bihar and Bengal each into one of his original twelve
subahs (imperial top-level provinces; Bihar with seat at
Patna) and the region passed through uneventful provincial rule during much of this period. Bihar was left under Mughal control until the
Battle of Plassey in 1757.[82]
Bihar passed into the control of
Nawabs of Bengal under British suzerainty.
Prince
Azim-us-Shan, the grandson of
Aurangzeb was appointed as the governor of Bihar in 1703.[83] Azim-us-Shan renamed Pataliputra or Patna as
Azimabad, in 1704.[84][85]
After the
Battle of Buxar, 1764, which was fought in
Buxar, hardly 115 km from Patna, the Mughals as well as the
Nawabs of Bengal lost effective control over the territories then constituting the province of Bengal, which currently comprises
Bangladesh and the Indian
states of
West Bengal,
Bihar,
Jharkhand,
Odisha. The
British East India Company was accorded the
diwani rights, that is, the right to administer the collection and management of revenues of the province of Bengal, and parts of
Oudh, currently comprising a large part of
Uttar Pradesh. The Diwani rights were legally granted by
Shah Alam, who was then the sovereign Mughal emperor of India. During the rule of the
British East India Company in Bihar, Patna emerged as one of the most important commercial and trading centres of eastern India, preceded only by
Kolkata.
The first seeds of resentment against British rule emerged when
MaharajaFateh Bahadur Sahi, the chieftain of Huseypur in
Saran district, initiated a struggle against the East India Company in 1767. His revolt escalated in 1781 when various other zamindars and chiefs in South Bihar began to join his revolt including
Raja Narain Singh and
Akbar Ali.[86] The British were able to successfully put down the revolt.
Under the
British Raj, Bihar particularly Patna gradually started to attain its lost glory and emerged as an important and strategic centre of learning and trade in India. From this point, Bihar remained a part of the
Bengal Presidency of the British Raj until 1912, when the province of
Bihar and Orissa was carved out as a separate province. When the Bengal Presidency was partitioned in 1912 to carve out a separate province, Patna was made the capital of the new province. The city limits were stretched westwards to accommodate the administrative base, and the township of
Bankipore took shape along the Bailey Road (originally spelt as Bayley Road, after the first Lt. Governor,
Charles Stuart Bayley). This area was called the New Capital Area. The houses of the English residents were all at the west end at Bankipore. The greater part of the English residences were on the banks of the river, many of them being on the northern side of an open square, which formed the parade ground, and racecourse (present
Gandhi Maidan). There was also the
Golghar a wondrous bell-shaped building, one hundred feet high, with a winding outer staircase leading to the top, and a small entrance door at the base, which was intended for a granary, to be filled when there was the expectation of famine. It was initially considered to be both politically and materially impracticable.
To this day, locals call the old area the City whereas the new area is called the New Capital Area. The
Patna Secretariat with its imposing clock tower and the
Patna High Court are two imposing landmarks of this era of development. Credit for designing the massive and majestic buildings of colonial Patna goes to the architect, I. F. Munnings. By 1916–1917, most of the buildings were ready for occupation. These buildings reflect either
Indo-Saracenic influence (like
Patna Museum and the state Assembly), or overt
Renaissance influence like the Raj Bhawan and the High Court. Some buildings, like the General Post Office (GPO) and the Old Secretariat, bear pseudo-Renaissance influence. Some say the experience gained in building the new capital area of Patna proved very useful in building the imperial capital of
New Delhi.
In India's struggle for independence, the Champaran Satyagraha marks a very important stage. Raj Kumar Shukla drew the attention of
Mahatma Gandhi, who had just returned from South Africa, to the plight of the peasants suffering under an oppressive system established by European indigo planters. Besides other excesses, they were forced to cultivate indigo on 3/20 part of their holding and sell it to the planters at prices fixed by the planters. This marked Gandhi's entry into India's independence movement. On arrival at the district headquarters in
Motihari, Gandhi and his team of lawyers—Dr.
Rajendra Prasad, Dr. Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Brajkishore Prasad and Ram Navami Prasad, whom he had handpicked to participate in the
satyagraha—were ordered to leave by the next available train. They refused to do this, and Gandhi was arrested. He was released and the ban order was withdrawn in the face of a "Satyagraha" threat. Gandhi conducted an open inquiry into the peasant's grievances. The Government had to appoint an inquiry committee with Gandhi as a member. This led to the abolition of the system.
Raj Kumar Shukla has been described by Gandhi in his Atmakatha, as a man whose suffering gave him the strength to rise against the odds. In his letter to Gandhi he wrote "Respected Mahatma, You hear the stories of others everyday. Today please listen to my story.... I want to draw your attention to the promise made by you in the
Lucknow Congress that you would come to Champaran. The time has come for you to fulfill your promise. 1.9 million suffering people of Champaran are waiting to see you."
Gandhi reached Patna on 10 April 1917 and on 16 April he reached
Motihari accompanied by
Raj Kumar Shukla. Under Gandhi's leadership the historic "Champaran Satyagraha" began. The contribution of Raj Kumar Shukla is reflected in the writings of Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India, Anugrah Narayan Sinha,
Acharya Kriplani and Mahatma Gandhi. Raj Kumar Shukla maintained a diary in which he gave an account of his struggle against the atrocities of the indigo planters, atrocities so movingly depicted by
Dinabandhu Mitra in
Nil Darpan, a play that was translated by
Michael Madhusudan Dutt. This movement by Mahatma Gandhi received the spontaneous support of a cross-section of people, including Dr.
Rajendra Prasad, Bihar Kesari
Sri Krishna Sinha, Dr. Anugrah Narayan Sinha and Brajkishore Prasad.
Shaheed
Baikuntha Shukla was another nationalist from Bihar, who was hanged for murdering a government approver named Phanindrananth Ghosh. This led to the hanging of
Bhagat Singh,
Sukhdev and
Rajguru. Phanindranath Ghosh hitherto a key member of the
Revolutionary Party had betrayed the cause by turning an approver and giving evidence, which led to his murder. Baikunth was commissioned to plan the murder of Ghosh. He carried out the killing successfully on 9 November 1932. He was arrested, tried, and convicted, and, on 14 May 1934, he was hanged in Gaya Central Jail.
Karpoori Thakur also played an important role in the freedom struggle.[94]
In North and Central Bihar, a peasant movement was an important side effect of the independence movement. The Kisan Sabha movement started in Bihar under the leadership of
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati who in 1929 had formed the
Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS) to mobilise peasant grievances against the
zamindari attacks their occupancy rights.[95] Gradually the peasant movement intensified and spread across the rest of India. All these radical developments on the peasant front culminated in the formation of the
All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) at the
Lucknow session of the
Indian National Congress in April 1936, with
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati elected as its first President.[96] This movement aimed at overthrowing the feudal zamindari system instituted by the
British. It was led by
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati and his followers
Pandit Yamuna Karjee,
Rahul Sankrityayan and others. Pandit Yamuna Karjee along with Rahul Sankrityayan and other Hindi literary figures started publishing a
Hindi weekly
Hunkar from Bihar in 1940. Hunkar later became the mouthpiece of the peasant movement and the agrarian movement in Bihar and was instrumental in spreading the movement. The peasant movement later spread to other parts of the country and helped in digging out the British roots in the Indian society by overthrowing the
zamindari system.
During the Quit India movement, in
Saran district of Bihar, Chandrama Mahto received bullet injuries during a protest against the colonial authorities and was subsequently martyred on the same day. In
Shahabad district, Maharaj Koeri was wounded in police firing at Behea. Ramjas Koeri was arrested, and taken into confinement, he died in prison, presumably due to brutal assault by Police.[97] Noted revolutionary
Chandradeo Prasad Verma was also arrested during Quit India movement, he underwent rigorous imprisonment for two years from 1943 to 1945. After his release from imprisonment, he restarted revolutionary activities once again and plotted a conspiracy to blast Bikram Airport in
Patna.[89]
Towards the end of 1946, between 30 October and 7 November, a massacre of Muslims in Bihar made
Partition more likely. Begun as a reprisal for the
Noakhali riot, it was difficult for authorities to deal with because it was spread out over a large number of scattered villages, and the number of casualties was impossible to establish accurately: "According to a subsequent statement in the
British Parliament, the death-toll amounted to 5,000. The Statesman's estimate was between 7,500 and 10,000; the
Congress party admitted to 2,000; Mr.
Jinnah claimed about 30,000."[98]
The
Indian National Congress dominated the state for much of the decades after independence except for a brief period in the 1960s and 70s when some of the backward caste leaders were successful in forming a non-Congress government in the state.[102][103]Satish Prasad Singh was the first
OBC chief minister of the state for a very brief period, who succeeded
Mahamaya Prasad Sinha.[104] In the later period, the upper-caste remained active in politics but the backward caste were gradually becoming vocal in political space. The lead was taken by
Upper Backward Castes, who were the biggest beneficiaries of the land reform drive undertaken in the early decades of independence and were now becoming active in the politics of the state. A section of these upper-backwards also emulated the practices of erstwhile Zamindars and committed atrocities against the
Dalits. The
Naxalite uprising in the state also forced the upper caste to sell off their most vulnerable holdings, which were most often bought by the peasants of these upper backward communities.[105][106] The naxal uprising in the state led to foundation of several caste-based private armies which perpetrated massacres of lower caste people on the charge of being the supporters of the Naxalites.
Ranvir Sena,
Bhumi Sena and
Kuer Sena were some of the most dreaded caste armies.[107] The Bhojpur region remained the hotspot of the Naxalite movement in the Bihar, where
Master Jagdish lead the uprising against the landlords.[108] Some of the biggest massacres took place during this period in which both upper-caste and the Dalits remained the victims. The
Upper Backward Castes were in two front confrontations with both the Dalits as well as upper castes.[109][110]
The caste wars coincided with the rise of backward caste politics against upper-caste domination in Bihar and throughout North India after the implementation of the Mandal Commission report. The most numerous and powerful backward community were the Yadavs, and the 1990s saw the rise of the
Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD) led by
Lalu Prasad Yadav. This party held the Yadav/Muslim vote bank, a combination also held by the Samajwadi party, its UP counterpart. This allowed the RJD to sweep to power throughout the 1990s. His platform was one of social justice, increasing reservations for lower castes. However critics of the era have claimed it was a 'Jungle raj.'[111][112]
Contemporary period
Lalu–Rabri Yadav (1990–2005)
In 1989, in the
9th General election to the
Lok Sabha, the
Janata Dal emerged as a serious challenge to the
Indian National Congress party at the
central level. The rise of Janata Dal also affected the state politics of
Bihar which was dominated by the
upper castes for long who were controlling the Congress firmly in the state, a charge disputed by some scholars. The Janata Dal was composed of three different wings which drew its strength from different classes of society. The first wing was under the leadership of
Chandra Shekhar, who had reached out to the other
Socialists and also to one splinter group under
Morarji Desai. The second faction consisted of some of the old congressmen including
Arun Nehru and former
Defence MinisterVishwanath Pratap Singh. The third group drew its support from backward castes and middle peasantry, led by
Charan Singh. Although Charan Singh was the leader of this faction, the actual leadership emerged after his death under the new generation of politicians like
Lalu Prasad Yadav, who was a product of student politics of the 1970s.[113][102][103]
Yadav was appointed as the first
OBC president of the Patna University student union in 1967. In 1974, he was appointed as the head of the Bihar student agitation committee which led the protest against the Congress-led government of the state during the
Bihar Movement under the mentorship of
Jay Prakash Narayan. According to Seyed Hossein Zarhani, throughout his leadership period at Patna University, his image was of a popular backward caste leader who fought against upper-caste dominance.[113]
Yadav followed the footsteps of his predecessors and Janta Dal under him indicated that it is the only party which is prepared to keep the backwards at the centre of the administration. Hence after assuming power, Lalu Yadav's government transferred 12 out of 13 Divisional Commissioners and 250 out of 324 Returning Officers in order to keep lower-caste people at the helm of all affairs at the local level. Many
OBC bureaucrats were brought to the main departments from the sidelines and were given key positions such as the strategic posts of
District Magistrates and Deputy Divisional Commissioners to the extent that they became least equivalent to the upper-castes. Three years after Yadav assumed power, many upper-caste officials attained transfer to the centre to avoid the alleged humiliation and ill-treatment they suffered in Bihar. The Panchayati Raj Bill and the Patna University and Bihar University amendment bill passed by the state legislature in 1993 also paved the way for the entry of
Scheduled Castes,
Scheduled Tribes and
OBCs in the state services in bulk.[114] According to
Christophe Jaffrelot:
Lalu Prasad Yadav has deliberately introduced a new style of politics, highlighting the rustic qualities of low castes of Bihar. For instance, he makes the point of speaking the Bhojpuri dialect or English with a strong Bhojpuri accent, to the horror of the upper classes. He was also adept at confronting them. One of his early slogans was, Bhurabal Hatao, (wipe out
Bhumihar,
Brahmin,
Rajput and Lala (Kayasth)). A few months after he became Chief Minister, he utilised his control of state media to describe the opposition to the Mandal as the conspiracy of the upper castes.[114]
Rise of Nitish Kumar (Post 1997)
Former Union Minister for Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution Shri
Sharad Yadav delivering his inaugural speech at Regional Seminar on National Food Agencies "Challenges of the New Millennium" in
New Delhi
Ram Vilas Paswan as the Union Minister of Chemicals & Fertilizers and Steel, addressing at "India Chem 2008" Industry meet in
Mumbai on 10 June 2008.
"Ram Vilas Paswan was often seen with Mont Blanc pen, Cartier glasses and Rado prompting his critics to brand him a ‘five-star
Dalit’. But in his pockets of influence in Bihar, his whirling helicopter was enough to make people chant, “Dharti Gunje Aasman, Ram Vilas Paswan.” Paswan was among the most popular faces when the social churn began in post-
Emergency Bihar. In 1983, he formed the Dalit Sena, on the lines of the Schedule Caste Federation of BR Ambedkar."
— From, Remembering Ram Vilas Paswan: The champion of Dalit politics in Bihar by
The Economic Times[115]
The Janata Dal had survived the splits in past when leaders like George Fernandes and Nitish Kumar defected to form
Samata Party in 1994, but it remained a baseless party after the decision of Yadav to form
Rashtriya Janata Dal in 1997. The second split took place before the
Rabri Devi assuming power which resulted in
Janata Dal having only two leaders of any consequence in it, namely
Sharad Yadav and
Ram Vilas Paswan. Paswan was regarded as the rising leader of Dalits and had the credit of winning his elections with unprecedented margins. His popularity reached the national level when he was awarded the post of Minister of Railways in the
United Front government in 1996 and was subsequently made the leader of
Lok Sabha. His outreach was witnessed in the western
Uttar Pradesh too, when his followers organised an impressive rally at the behest of a newly floated organisation called Dalit Panthers.[116] Sharad Yadav was also a veteran socialist leader but without any massive support base. In the 1998 Parliamentary elections, the Samata Party and Janata Dal, which was in a much weaker position after the formation of
RJD ended up eating each other's vote base. This made Nitish Kumar merge both the parties to form
Janata Dal (United).[117]
In
1999 Lok Sabha elections, Rashtriya Janata Dal received a setback at the hand of
BJP+
JD(U) combine. The new coalition emerged leading in 199 out of 324 assembly constituencies and it was widely believed that in the forthcoming election to Bihar state assembly elections, the Lalu-Rabri rule will come to an end. The RJD had fought the election in an alliance with the Congress but the coalition didn't work making state leadership of Congress believe that the maligned image of Lalu Prasad after his name was drawn in the
Fodder Scam had eroded his support base. Consequently, the Congress decided to fight the
2000 assembly elections alone. The RJD had to be satiated with the communist parties as the coalition partners but the seat-sharing conundrum in the camp of
NDA made Nitish Kumar pull his Samta Party out of the Sharad Yadav and Ram Vilas Paswan faction of the Janata Dal. Differences also arose between the BJP and Nitish Kumar who later wanted to be projected as the Chief Minister of Bihar but the former was not in favour. Even Paswan also wanted to be a
CM face. The Muslims and OBCs were too divided in their opinion. A section of Muslims, which included the poor communities like Pasmanda were of the view that Lalu only strengthened upper Muslims like Shaikh, Sayyid and Pathans and they were in search of new options.[118]
Yadav also alienated other dominant backward castes like
Koeri and
Kurmi since his projection as the saviour of Muslims. It is argued by Sanjay Kumar that the belief that, "the dominant OBCs like the twin caste of Koeri-Kurmi will ask for share in power if he (Yadav) seeks their support while the Muslims will remain satisfied with the protection during communal riots only" made Yadav neglect them. Moreover, the divisions in both camps made the political atmosphere in the state a charged one in which many parties were fighting against each other with no visible frontiers. JD(U) and BJP were fighting against each other on some of the seats and so was the Samta Party. The result was a setback for the BJP, which in media campaigns was emerging with a massive victory. RJD emerged as the single largest party and with the political maneuvere of Lalu Yadav, Rabri Devi was sworn in as the Chief Minister again. The media largely failed to gauge the ground-level polarisation in Bihar.[118] According to Sanjay Kumar:
there can be no doubt about one thing that the upper-caste media was always anti Lalu and it was either not aware of the ground level polarisation in the Bihar, or deliberately ignored it. If the election result did not appear as a setback for RJD, it was largely because of the bleak picture painted by the media. Against this background, RJD's defeat had appeared like a victory.[118]
Even after serving imprisonment in connection with the 1997 scam, Lalu seemed to relish his role as a lower-caste jester. He argued that corruption charges against him and his family were the conspiracy of the upper-caste bureaucracy and media elites threatened by the rise of peasant cultivator castes. In 2004, Lalu's RJD had outperformed other state-based parties by winning 26 Lok Sabha seats in Bihar. He was awarded the post of
Union Railway minister but the rising aspirations of the extremely backward castes unleashed by him resulted in JD(U) and BJP-led coalition to defeat his party in
2005 Bihar Assembly elections. Consequently, Nitish Kumar a leader of OBC
Kurmi caste was sworn in as the chief minister. During Lalu's time backward caste candidates came to dominate the Bihar assembly claiming half of the seats in it and it was the aspiration of this powerful social community which led to friction among the united backwards, leading to the rise of Nitish Kumar who made both social justice and development as his political theme.[119]
Thus, the 2005 Bihar assembly elections ended the 15 years of continuous
RJD rule in the state, giving way to
NDA led by
Nitish Kumar. Bihari migrant workers have faced violence and prejudice in many parts of India, like
Maharashtra,
Punjab and
Assam.[120][121][122]
To mark the separation of Bihar from Bengal on 22 March 1912, the completion of 100 years of existence is being celebrated in the name of Bihar Shatabadi Celebration Utsav.[123] There was a
political crisis over post of the chief minister during February 2015.
^Mahadevan, Iravatham (March 1999).
"Murukan in the Indus script"(PDF). Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies. XVI: 3–39. Archived from
the original(PDF) on 19 February 2018. Retrieved 17 July 2020.
^
abe.g. McDonell and Keith 1912, Vedic Index; Rahurkar, V.G. 1964. The Seers of the Rgveda. University of Poona. Poona; Talageri, Shrikant. (2000)
The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis
^Tewari, Rakesh (2016). EXCAVATION AT JUAFARDIH, DISTRICT NALANDA. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. pp. 6–8. Layers 13 the uppermost deposit of Period I, has provided a C14 date of 1354 BCE it may thus be seen that the C14 dates of Period I and II are consistent and justifiably indicate that the conventional date bracket for NBPW requires a fresh review at least for the sites in Magadh region.
^Krishna Reddy (2003). Indian History. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. pp. A107.
ISBN0-07-048369-8.
^Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I. B. Tauris : London
ISBN1-86064-148-2 - Jainism's major teacher is the Mahavira, a contemporary of the Buddha, and who died approximately 526 BCE. Page 114
^Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I. B. Tauris : London
ISBN1-86064-148-2 - "The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira." Page 115
^"KING ASHOKA: His Edicts and His Times". Archived from
the original on 28 October 2013. Retrieved 15 November 2006.
Edicts of Ashoka, which comprise the earliest decipherable corpus of written documents from India, have survived throughout the centuries because they are written on rocks and stone pillars.
^Cooke, Roger (1997). "The Mathematics of the Hindus". The history of mathematics. Wiley. p.
204.
ISBN9780471180821. Aryabhata himself (one of at least two mathematicians bearing that name) lived in the late 5th and the early 6th centuries at
Kusumapura (Pataliutra, a village near the city of Patna) and wrote a book called Aryabhatiya.
^Scott, David (May 1995). "Buddhism and Islam: Past to Present Encounters and Interfaith Lessons". Numen. 42 (2): 141–155.
doi:
10.1163/1568527952598657.
JSTOR3270172.
^Historia Religionum: Handbook for the History of Religions By C. J. Bleeker, G. Widengren page 381
^Gopal Ram, Rule
Hindu Culture During and After Muslim, pp. 20, "Some invaders, like Bakhtiar Khilji, who did not know the value of books and art objects, destroyed them in large numbers and also the famous Nalanda ..."
^The Maha-Bodhi By Maha Bodhi Society, Calcutta (page 8)
^Omalley L.S.S., History of Magadha, Veena Publication, Delhi, 2005, pp. 35.
^Omalley L.S.S., History of Magadha, Veena Publication, Delhi, 2005, pp. 36, "Sher Shah on his return from Bengal, in 1541, came to Patna, then a small town dependent on Bihar, which was the seat of the local government. He was standing on the ban of the Ganges, when, after much reflection, he said to those who were standing by, "If a fort were to be built in this place, the waters of the Ganges could never flow far from it, and Patna would become one of the great towns of this country." The fort was completed. Bihar for that time was deserted, and fell to ruin; while Patna became one of the largest cities of the province. In 1620 we find Portuguese merchants at Patna; and Tavernier's account shows that a little more then a century after its foundation it was the great entrepot of Northern India "the largest town in Bengal and the most famous for trade..."
^Brown (1972). Gandhi's Rise to Power, Indian Politics 1915-1922: Indian Politics 1915-1922. New Delhi: Cambridge University Press Archive. p. 384.
ISBN978-0-521-09873-1.
^SINGH, JAGPAL. “Karpoori Thakur: A Socialist Leader in the Hindi Belt.” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 50, no. 3, 2015, pp. 54–60. JSTOR,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/24481124. Accessed 28 July 2023.
^Bandyopādhyāya, Śekhara (2004). From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India.
Orient Longman. pp. 523 (at p 406).
ISBN978-81-250-2596-2.
^Bandyopādhyāya, Śekhara (2004). From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India.
Orient Longman. pp. 523 (at p 407).
ISBN978-81-250-2596-2.
^
abRadhakanta Barik (2006).
Land and Caste Politics in Bihar. Shipra Publications. p. 85.
ISBN8175413050. Retrieved 10 February 2021. It is not so as the political party led the national movement and controlled the government for almost 40 years in Bihar after Independence, it would be over-exaggeration to state that the Congress Party is a party of the upper castes.
^
abShyama Nand Singh (1991).
Reservation: Problems and Prospects. Uppal Publishing House. p. 45.
ISBN8185024901. Retrieved 10 February 2021. The victory of the Congress Party in 1972 arrested this trend. The political domination of the upper castes under the leadership of the Brahmans returned [...] The Coalition Government of five opposition parties in 1967 was led by Mahamaya Prasad Sinha, a Kayastha leader, who had newly formed a political party called the [...] Political power in Bihar was for long the privilege of the upper castes .
^Ranabir Samaddar (3 March 2016).
"Bihar 1990-2011". Government of Peace: Social Governance, Security and the Problematic of Peace. Routledge, 2016.
ISBN978-1317125372. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati Rachnawali (Selected works of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati) in Six volumes published by Prakashan Sansthan,
Delhi, 2003.
Swami Sahajanand and the Peasants of Jharkhand: A View from 1941 translated and edited by
Walter Hauser along with the unedited
Hindi original (Manohar Publishers, paperback, 2005).
Sahajanand on Agricultural Labour and the Rural Poor translated and edited by
Walter Hauser (Manohar Publishers, paperback, 2005).
Religion, Politics, and the Peasants: A Memoir of India's Freedom Movement translated and edited by
Walter Hauser (Manohar Publishers, hardbound, 2003).
Pandit Yadunandan (Jadunandan) Sharma, 1947, Bakasht Mahamari Aur Uska Achook Ilaaz (Bakasht Epidemic and its Infalliable Remedy) in Hindi, Allahabad.
Indradeep Sinha, 1969, Sathi ke Kisanon ka Aitihasic Sangharsha (Historic Struggle of Sathi Peasants), in Hindi, Patna.
Das Arvind N., The republic of Bihar, Penguin Books, 1992,
George A. Grierson (1885).
Bihar Peasant Life. Bengal Secretariat Press, Calcutta.
Tayler William, Three Months at Patna during the Insurrection of 1857, Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, Patna, 2007
Taylor P.J.O., What really happened during the Mutiny: A day by day account of the major events of 1857–1859 in India, Oxford University Press, 1997,
ISBN0-19-564182-5
Basham A. L., The Wonder that was India, Picador, 1954,
ISBN0-330-43909-X
Nambisan Vijay, Bihar in the eye of the beholder, Penguin Books, 2000,
ISBN978-0-14-029449-1
Radhakanta Barik - Land & Caste Politics in Bihar (Shipra Publications, Delhi, 2006)