In
political contexts, comrade means a fellow party member, usually
left-wing. The political use was inspired by the
French Revolution, after which it grew into a
form of address between socialists and workers. Since the
Russian Revolution, popular culture in the
West has often associated it with
communism. As such, it can be used as a derogatory reference to left-wingers, akin to "
commie". In particular, the Russian word
tovarishch may be used as derogatory reference to
Communists.
Etymology
The term comrade generally means 'mate', 'colleague', or 'ally', and derives from the
Spanish and
Portuguese, term camarada,[1] literally meaning 'chamber mate', from Latin camera, meaning 'chamber' or 'room'.[2] It may also specifically mean "fellow soldier",
comrade in arms.
Background
Upon abolishing the titles of nobility in France, and the terms monsieur and madame (literally, 'my lord' and 'my lady'), the revolutionaries employed the term citoyen for men and citoyenne for women (both meaning '
citizen') to refer to each other.[3] The deposed King
Louis XVI, for instance, was referred to as Citoyen Louis
Capet to emphasize his loss of privilege.[4]
When the socialist movement gained momentum in the mid-19th century, socialists elsewhere began to look for a similar
egalitarian alternative to terms like "
Mister", "
Miss", or "
Missus". In
German, the word Kamerad had long been used as an affectionate form of address among people linked by some strong common interest, such as a sport, a college, a profession (notably as a soldier), or simply friendship.[5] The term was often used with political overtones in the
revolutions of 1848, and was subsequently borrowed by French and English. In English, the first known use of the word comrade with this meaning was in 1884 in the socialist magazine Justice.[6]
Political usage
Russo-Soviet usage
In the late 19th century Russian
Marxists and other leftist revolutionaries adopted as a translation of the word Kamerad the Russian word for tovarisch (
Russian: товарищ) (from
Old Turkictavar ishchi; abbreviated tov.), whose original meaning was "business companion" or "travel (or other adventure) mate", deriving from the noun товар (tovar, 'merchandise')[7][8] as a form of address in international (especially German)
social democracy and in the associated parts of the
labour movement. For instance, one might be referred to as Tovarisch Plekhanov or Tovarisch Chairman, or simply as Tovarisch. After the
Russian Revolution, translations of the term in different languages were adopted by
communists worldwide. However, due to its common usage in portrayals of the Soviet Union in Cold War films and books, the term became most strongly associated in public consciousness with communism as known in the
Soviet Union, even though many other socialists would continue to use comrade among themselves.[citation needed]
In the early years of Soviet power, the Bolsheviks used Tovarisch when addressing or referring to people assumed sympathetic to the revolution and to the Soviet state, such as members of the Communist party (and originally of other pro-revolution leftist formations such as the
Left Socialist-Revolutionaries) and people from the "working masses". The more neutral republican form of address would translate as Citizen. Accordingly, supporters of the
White movement in the
Russian Civil War would use Tovarisch mockingly as a derogatory term for their enemies – although at the same time, the various socialist anti-Bolshevik forces such as the
Socialist Revolutionary Party and the
Mensheviks also used Tovarisch among themselves.[citation needed]
By the mid-1920s, the form of address Tovarisch became so commonplace in the
Soviet Union that it was used indiscriminately in essentially the same way as terms like "Mister" and "Sir" are employed in English. That use persisted until the
dissolution of the Soviet Union. Still, the original meaning partly re-surfaced in some contexts: criminals and suspects were only addressed as "citizens" and not as tovarischi, and expressly refusing to address someone as tovarisch would generally be perceived as a hostile act or, in
Stalinist times, even as an accusation of being "
Anti-Soviet".[9]
The term Tovarisch (Comrade) is still the standard form of address in the
Russian Armed Forces and
Police of Russia, where officers and soldiers are normally addressed as Tovarisch Colonel, Tovarisch General, Tovarisch Sergeant, or the like. The term is also used as part of idioms, for example: tovarishch po neschast'yu ('fellow-sufferer', from German Leidensgenosse) or boyevoy tovarishch ([war] buddy), or as a part of such words as tovarishchestvo (partnership) that do not associate with communism.[citation needed]
In
Chinese, the translation of comrade is 同志 (
pinyin: tóng zhì), literally meaning '(people with) the same spirit, goal, ambition, etc.'. It was first introduced in the political sense by
Sun Yat-sen to refer to his followers.[citation needed] The Kuomintang (Nationalist Party), which was co-founded by Sun Yat-Sen, has a long tradition of using this term to refer to its members, usually as a noun rather than a title; for example, a KMT member would say "Mr. Chang is a loyal and reliable comrade (同志)."[10]
Nevertheless, the term was promoted most actively by the
Chinese Communist Party during its struggle for power. It was used both as a noun and as a title for basically anyone in
mainland China after the
People's Republic of China was founded. For example, women were nü tongzhi ('female comrade'), children were xiao tongzhi ('little comrade') and seniors were lao tongzhi ('old comrade'). However, after the 1980s and the onset of China's market-oriented reforms, this term has been moving out of such daily usage. It remains in use as a respectful term of public address among middle-aged Chinese and members of the Chinese Communist Party. Within the Communist Party, failure to address a fellow member as tóng zhì is seen as a subtle but unmistakable sign of disrespect and enmity.[citation needed]
At party or civil meetings, the usage of the term has been retained. Officials often address each other as Tongzhi, and thus the usage here is not limited to Communist Party members alone. In addition, Tongzhi is the term of preference to address any national leader when their titles are not attached (e.g., Comrade Mao Zedong, Comrade Deng Xiaoping).[citation needed]
In October 2016, the
Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party issued a directive urging all 90 million party members to keep calling each other "comrades" instead of less egalitarian terms.[11][12] It is also in the regulations of the
Chinese Armed Forces as one of three appropriate ways to formally address another member of the military ("comrade" plus rank or position, as in "Comrade Colonel", or simply "comrade/s" when lacking information about the person's rank, or talking to several servicepeople.)[13]
The
SAR territories of Hong Kong and Macau generally use tongzhi as a catch-all term to refer to members of the
LGBT community; its use as a word for "comrade" has historically been uncommon due to both territories formerly being under foreign administrations. This definition of tongzhi is becoming increasingly popular among mainland Chinese youth and a growing number of older Chinese people have stopped using tongzhi due to its new association with the LGBT community.[14]
Among poor residents of the country's segregated
townships, it was also used to specifically denote members of militant youth organisations.[17] These radical activists led
consumer boycotts, organised anti-apartheid rallies and demonstrations, and intimidated those suspected of having ties to the South African government or security forces.[17] In this particular context, the English title comrades was also used interchangeably with the
Xhosa term amabutho.[17]
The
British Union of Fascists used the word commonly to refer to members. The Marching Song, set to the music of the Horst-Wessel-Lied began 'Comrades, the voices'. The writer, E.D. Randall, defended the usage of the word by stating that 'comrades' ‘fittingly and completely expresses the ideal of unity in the service of a common cause’[23]
In
Albanian, the word shok (meaning friend, from
Latinsocius) was used within communist circles. The female form is shoqe.
In
Ethiopia the
Amharic word for "comrade" is "Guade" written with ancient
Geʽez script as "ጓድ". The word "Guade" trace its origin to the Amharic word of "Guadegna/ ጓደኛ" meaning " a friend". The word was in popular use after the 1974 revolution particularly by members of the socialist party to refer to another person of the similar political group, belongs to the same ideology, or similar style. The usage of the word is eroded since 1991 and it is limited to political party conventions or meetings. A rather the most popular variation of the word in the past and currently is "Guadochae/ ጓዶቼ" meaning "my friends" which is a humble way of address for a valued colleague or friend.
The
Arabic word رفيق (Rafīq) (meaning comrade, companion) is used in
Arabic,
Urdu and
Persian with the same political connotation as "comrade". The term is used both among
Arab communists as well as within the
Ba'ath movement and the
Lebanese Forces. The term predates modern political usage, and is an Arabic male proper name.
Iranian communists use the same term. In
Pakistan, the term is sometimes used to refer to Islamist members of
Jama'at-e-Islami and
Islami Jamiat-e-Talaba (the student wing of Jamaat-e-Islami).
The
Azerbaijani word for comrade is Yoldaş (literally "co-traveller").
The
Belarusian word for comrade is таварыш (tavaryš), with the same origin as the Russian word. It is usually used only with a political or historical meaning in connection with the Communists.
The
Bulgarian word for comrade is другар (drugar), female другарка (drugarka). It translates as friend or colleague. In Communist times, it was the general form of address, also used in reference to schoolteachers etc.
In
Catalan, the word for comrade is company for males, companya for females. It is still in widespread use among communist and anarchist organisations, but it also occurs often in everyday speech to refer to neutral relationships such as classmates or flatmates with no political connotation.
In
Chinese, the word 同志 (
pinyin: Tóngzhì) is used. The meaning of the word refers to a like-minded person. It is, through usage, associated with Communism, however, it may be used as a friendly epithet between friends or colleagues, mostly of the older generation. It is still currently used in Chinese state media to address top party and state leaders such as
Xi Jinping as well as within the
People’s Liberation Army to address soldiers and officers. In current usage, it is also used by
LGBT people in China to refer to one another.[24]
The
Czech word for comrade is soudruh (m.) and soudružka (f.). In 19th century Czech, it was a poetic word, meaning 'fellow'. As elsewhere in Europe, the term was originally introduced by the Czech Social Democrats and subsequently carried over to Czech Communists as well when these split off from the Social Democrats. After the Communist Party gained power in 1948, the word displaced all prior titles like pan, paní ("Mister", "Madam") and became the title used generally for everyone. Nowadays, it is used only in (actual or, more often, ironic) Communist context. After the
Velvet Revolution, an attempt was made in the
Czech Social Democratic Party to replace soudruh with přítel ("friend") as a form of an address, but it didn't catch on. A cognate to English word 'comrade', kamarád, means "friend" in Czech. It is a very commonly used word and it has no political connotations. A cognate (now obsolete) to the Russian word tovarishch, tovaryš, means "
journeyman" in Czech and has no political connotations (compare Tovaryšstvo Ježíšovo, lit. "Jesus's Journeymen").
The
Danish word is kammerat (plural kammerater) which literally translates as "
mate," or "
buddy". It is normally used to refer to someone's childhood friend or friends, but can also be used interchangeably with ven, which means friend.
The
Esperanto word for comrade is kamarado either in the sense of a friend or a political fellow-traveller. In the latter case, when used in writing, it is often abbreviated to K-do. It is the preferred form of address among members of Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda. The word samideano, literally "same-thinker", usually refers to a fellow Esperantist.[26]
The
Estonian word is seltsimees which originally comes from German Geselle. Having initially a neutral meaning, the term was later adapted by local communists. Today it has an ironical meaning, referring to Soviet times.
The
Finnish word is toveri which literally translates as '
companion'. This has a heavy socialist connotation, but may sometimes be used in humorous manner. Mates in an institution like school, jail or hospital could also be addressed thus, but not in the army.
The
French word is camarade. It is mainly used by communists and can apply to classmates or friends.
In
German, the word is Kamerad for a male, or Kameradin for a female. The meaning is that of a fellow, a companion or an associate. Since Kamerad is the usual term for a fellow soldier in German military language, the word is associated with right-wing rather than left-wing groups. Communists and socialists, especially party members of the
SED and
SPD use the word Genosse (fem. Genossin; i.e. "partner", in the sense of a fellow member of a
co-operative) with the socialist association that 'comrade' has in English.[citation needed]. The members of the Nazi party
NSDAP used the variant Parteigenosse (lit. party-comrade).
The
Greek word is σύντροφος (syntrophos, m.) and συντρόφισσα (syntrophissa, f.), used by communists, socialists and other left-wing groups. Other meanings of this word are: mate, pal, friend, companion, even partner or associate etc.
The
Hebrew equivalent is Chaver (חבר), a word which can mean both 'friend' and 'member' (of a group or organization). During the time of
Socialist Zionist political and ideological dominance of the 1930s to the 1960s, the word in a sense similar to English "comrade" was in widespread use, in the
Kibbutz movement, the
Histadrut trade unions, the driver-owned bus companies etc., though this implication is carried only when it is used as a title to precede a name, in which case it includes a
definite article (e.g. החבר סטאלין). At present, its political use is considered old-fashioned, mainly restricted to Israeli Communists; the same word exists also in
Yiddish, which is one possible origin of the colloquial
Australian word cobber.) The Hebrew Chaver and the female Chavera are still widely used in a non-political sense, as meaning simply 'friend' (in certain contexts also meaning 'boyfriend'/'girlfriend').
The
Hungarian word for comrade is elvtárs; elv means '
principle' or '
tenet' while társ means 'fellow'. As the
Hungarian Working People's Party gradually gained power after the
Second World War, the word displaced all prior titles like úr ("Mister") and became the title used generally for everyone except for people who were obviously not "tenet fellows" e.g. those who committed
political crime against the socialist state. After the democratic transition the word became obsolete and it is used derogatorily to address politicians on the
political left.
The
Icelandic word for comrade is félagi, which is cognate to English “fellow”. It is used as a less intimate alternative to vinur (friend). It is also the word used for a "member" of club or association. When used as a title to precede a name (e.g., félagi Tító or félagi Dimitroff) it has a communist implication.
In
Indonesian, the word is kamerad. In the early days of independence, Bung, meaning "brother", was commonly used as an egalitarian form of address for people of any status.[27]
The
Italian word for comrade is compagno (male) or compagna (female), meaning "companion". This word is in widespread use among left-wing circles, including not just communists but also many socialists. The literal translation of the word comrade is camerata, with the specific meaning of "comrade-in-arms" or "fellow soldier": it is used by nationalist and militarist right-wing groups. Using one word or the other is a quick way to announce one's political views.
The
Japanese word for comrade is 同志 (dōshi), using the same Han characters as in Chinese. The word is used to refer to like-minded persons and the usage is not necessarily limited to Communists, though the word is to some extent associated with Communism. The word should not be confused with a homonym 同士, which is a more commonly used postfix to show people sharing a certain property.
In
Kannada, the word ಗೆಳೆಯರೇ, ಗೆಳೆಯ (Geḷeẏa) is used among communist people's while addressing its people.
In
Kazakh, the translation of "tovarish" was similar to other Turkic translations, "жолдас"; "joldas"Kazakh pronunciation:[ʐɔɫdɑs] (literally "co-traveller", most often used referring to friends and spouses) was used.
In
Korean, a good equivalent of the word would be 동무 (tongmu) or 동지 (tongji, senior comrade). Although the word was originally used by Korean people all over the
Korean Peninsula, people living south of the
38th Parallel began avoiding using the word after a
communist state was set up in the north. In
North Korea, the word tongmu replaced all prior social titles and earned a new meaning as "a fellow man fighting for the revolution". The word originally meant “friend”. On the other hand, the word 동지 (tongji) is frequently used in North Korean state media to address senior state and party leaders such as
Kim Jong-un.
In
Kurdish, the word Heval ("friend" or "companion on a long journey") is widely used among Kurdish political parties and organizations.
In
Latvian, the word is biedrs for males and biedre or biedrene for females.
In
Lithuanian, the word is draugas for males and draugė for females; both of which originally meant 'friend'.
In
Macedonian, the word is другар (drugar) for males and другарka (drugarka) for females.
In
Malay, the words Komrad, Kawan and Sahabat are used among socialist organizations.
In
Malayalam, the word സഖാവ് (sakhavu) (meaning friend, ally, partner) is used among communist organizations while addressing fellow members. Due to the strong presence of the Communist Party of India in Kerala, the word is almost exclusively used to refer to a member of the party or to imply an association with communism.
In
Mexico, the word is camarada and compañero can be (and often is) used with no political connotation.
In
Mongolian, the word is нөхөр (nökhör). It is still in use but less than before.
In
Norwegian, the word is kamerat. It can be associated with communist usage, but more commonly refers simply to an associate, a co-worker (arbeidskamerat), or a classmate in school (klassekamerat or skolekamerat). In everyday use, the word kamerat on its own is considered a masculine term, referring to boys/men. For girls/women, the term venninne (female form of venn friend) is used instead. When joined with other words, such as klassekamerat, the word is gender neutral. (Although Norwegians would understand what is meant by klassevenninne, it would also sound awkward and somewhat archaic.)
In the
Philippines, communist and left-leaning activists prefer the term kasama (roughly, companion), and the short form, Ka before the name (e.g.
Ka Bel).
Protestant (usually
Evangelical) clerics and members of the Iglesia ni Cristo also use Ka before names or
nicknames, but as a contraction of kapatíd ('brother'/'sister'), denoting spiritual brotherhood. Practitioners of law informally use the
Spanish terms compañero and compañera when referring to each other, albeit without any socio-political connotation.
In the
Pashto language, the word for comrade is malgury. It is used by and refers to communists, socialists, or supporters of the communist system across the
Durand Line (i.e. in
Afghanistan and
Pakistan) by Pashto speakers. For the last decade or so it has also been used by the nationalists. The word is also used by common people both male and female for a very close friend.
In
Poland, the word is towarzysz, which has the same origin as the Russian word. In non-political sense, it means "companion".
In
Portugal and
Brazil, the word is camarada, now being commonly employed to refer to communists or supporters of the communist system (result of the overusage of the term in the
post-revolutionary society). It is also prevalent in the army, and has been gaining popularity among nationalist movements. The term used among socialist activists nowadays tends to be companheiro / companheira although in Portugal camarada is still commonly used. Brazilian president
Lula is widely known for addressing his political mates and supporters as companheiro, however this decreased during the last years of his presidential term, while it was very popular during the elections, often imitated by comedians who satirized Lula's idiosyncratic manners. The terms camarada and companheiro(s)/companheira(s) are also used without political connotations, meaning 'mate', 'partner', 'fella'.
In the
Punjabi language the word for comrade is Sāthī (ਸਾਥੀ). However, the word "Comrade" itself, or ਕਾਮਰੇਡ (Kāmrēḍ), is used to refer to a communist or communist party member, and is often used as a more linguistically acceptable replacement for the word "communist," with the communist party often being called "The Comrades" or communist thought being called "ਕਾਮਰੇਡ ਸੋਚਣੀ" (Kāmrēḍ Sōcaṇī).
In the
Romani language the word for comrade is Dosti as seen in the phrase Te vestinel o dosti Tito, te vestinena o jugoslovenske manusha or Long live comrade
Tito and long live the
Yugoslav people.
In
Romanian the exact translation is camarad, a
neologism introduced from
French in the 19th century, which does not bear a political connotation, referring mainly to wartime allies and friends. During the communist era an older term, tovarăș, derived from a Slavic source, was used to convey the political meaning.
The
Serbo-Croatian equivalent for comrade is drug (друг) for males and drugarica (другарица) for females; it's also a regular and colloquial word for 'friend', although largely replaced by prijatelj and prijateljica in standard varieties of the language.
Communist Party/League of Communists of Yugoslavia promoted the use of the term between the members and generally among the society throughout existence of the
Socialist Yugoslavia, from
World War II in early 1940s to
Yugoslav Wars in early 1990s. It was not unusual to hear political leaders referring to their audience as drugarice i drugovi. Its intention was to emphasize empathy and equality, and it is still used by the most fervocious adherents of leftist ideologies.
The
Slovak word for comrade is súdruh (m.) and súdružka (f.). The term kamarát is used too, but it is normally translated as friend.
The
Slovenian word for comrade is tovariš (m.) and tovarišica (f.), first attested in the 16th century. After the Second World War it was also colloquially used for 'teacher' (as an elliptical form of the official tovariš učitelj (m.) and tovarišica učiteljica (f.) 'comrade teacher'). After 1991 it rapidly fell out of use as a general term of address, but is still used when expressing comradeship among individuals.
The
Sindhi word for comrade is Saṅgat, سنگت; it is normally translated as friend.
The
Somali word for comrade is jaalle; it is normally translated as friend. It was widely used by the erstwhile
Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (1969-1991). The word fell out of use after the fall of the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party.
In
Spain, the word is compañero (m.) / compañera (f.) ('companion'); the term camarada ('comrade') has also been used, but it is more associated with the communist and
Falange tradition. In
Spain the word compañero can be (and often is) used with no political connotation.
The standard form in
Cuba is compañero / compañera, as it was in socialist
Nicaragua and
Chile. In some parts of Latin America, camarada is the more frequent word, except in
Peru, where the term is commonly associated with the nom de guerre of members of
far left groups
Shining Path and
MRTA, while members of the social-democrat party
APRA as well as other left parties or left-leaning organizations employ compañero to refer to fellow members. The term camarada is the more normal among
Spanish Communists.
In Chile, much like as in Italy, camarada has traditionally been used by
its army, and historically by fascist groups, such as the
National Socialist Movement of Chile, while compañero is commonplace within far-left wing groups and the
Socialist and
Communist parties.
In
Sinhala, the word is සහෝදරයාsahōdarayā, which literally means brother.
In
Swahili, the equivalent word is ndugu for brother-in-arms, or dada for a female comrade. The word ndugu is still used in formerly socialist Tanzania as a way of showing (political) solidarity.
The
Swedish word is kamrat. Although it can be associated with communist usage, it can equally well refer simply to a friend, a co-worker (arbetskamrat), or a classmate in school (klasskamrat or skolkamrat). Unlike the corresponding
Norwegian word, the term is commonly used for both boys and girls in non-communist usage. See also
Idrottsföreningen Kamraterna
The
Tamil word for comrade is Tōḻar (தோழர்) and is a regular word for 'friend'.
In
Tetun, the national language of
Timor Leste, the word camarada is used – a direct loan from the language of the former colonial power, Portugal. During the 1970s the word was a common term of address within the left-leaning
Fretilin party, and after the Indonesian invasion, continued to be used by the Fretilin associated guerrillas waging a war of resistance in the jungle. Though largely falling out of use since 1999 Fretilin politicians and veterans of the guerrillas struggle continue to use the term to refer to each other.
The
Thai word sahai (สหาย) was used in the communist movement.
The
Turkish word yoldaş (literally 'co-traveller') has become used within the communist movement, yol meaning 'way' and 'cause'.
OttomanJanissaries used to call each other yoldaş (یولداش 'comrade') or yoldaşân (یولداشان, plural: 'comrades').[28] Turkish communists, being morally affected by
Bektashi values of the older era, adopted this term. In the climate of harsh anticommunist repression the word largely disappeared from common usage. Yoldaş is also a male name in Turkish.
In the
United Kingdom, political use of the term comrade is strongly associated with both Communism and, historically, Fascism. However it is still used as an informal form of address among some
Labour Party members, and in a more serious manner by many smaller parties of the left. Use of the term is generally restricted to people with whom the speaker agrees politically. It is usually written in full, the abbreviation Cde being associated with southern African usage. The honorific terms sister and brother, also declining in usage, are more politically inclusive, encompassing everyone from the centre-left to the far-left, without necessarily indicating complete political agreement. All three terms are occasionally used in a mocking or patronising manner by political opponents. On the far right, comrade was the standard form of address between members of the
British Union of Fascists and featured widely in their publications and marching songs.
In the
United States, the word comrade carries a strong connotation with Communism,
Marxism–Leninism, and the former Soviet Union. Especially during the
Cold War, to address someone as "comrade" marked either the speaker, person addressed, or both as suspected communist sympathizers. It is frequently used ironically in that way. In addition, it is still used in its generic context[clarification needed] by some American socialists. Despite this, it has been adopted into the U.S. Army
Soldier's Creed in the statement "I will never leave a fallen comrade". It is also used at meetings of the
Veterans of Foreign Wars to address a fellow member.
The
Vietnamese word is đồng chí, which is derived from Chinese 同志. Due to the influence of Chinese revolutionary groups during the early 20th century on the Vietnamese independence movement, its usage was first seen among members of the
Kuomintang-backed
Vietnamese Nationalist Party and then later spread to members of the
Vietnamese Communist Party. It is still being used openly in public to address state and Communist Party leaders as well as among soldiers and military officers in the
People's Army of Vietnam.
^И.С. Выходцева (4–6 October 2004). K.R. Galiullina (ed.).
O probleme obshcheupotrebitel'nogo obrashcheniya v russkom yazyke О проблеме общеупотребительного обращения в русском языке [On the problem of common circulation in the Russian language]. Русская и сопоставительная филология: состояние и перспективы: Международная научная конференция, посвященная 200-летию Казанского университета [Russian and comparative philology: state and prospects: International scientific conference dedicated to the 200th anniversary of
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^Blasco, Dennis J (2011).
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ISBN978-0415783224. According to regulations, members of the
PLA address each other: (1) by their duty position, or (2) by their position plus surname, or (3) by their position plus the title "comrade" (tongzhi). When the duty position of the other person is not known, one service member may address the other by military rank plus the word "comrade" or only as comrade.
^Jaster, Robert Scott (1992). South Africa's Other Whites: Voices for Change. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. p. 110.
ISBN978-0333522080.
^Sechaba, Tsepo; Ellis, Stephen (1992). Comrades Against Apartheid: The ANC & the South African Communist Party in Exile. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 72.
ISBN978-0253210623.
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abcBornman, Elirea; van Eeden, Renee; Wentzel, Marie (1998). Violence in South Africa: A Variety of Perspectives. Pretoria: HRSC, Publishers. p. 110.
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