For the community in the U.S. state of Texas, see
Close City, Texas.
A closed city or town is a settlement where travel or residency restrictions are applied so that specific authorization is required to visit or remain overnight. Such places may be sensitive military establishments or secret research installations that require much more space or internal freedom than is available in a conventional
military base.[citation needed] There may also be a wider variety of permanent residents, including close family members of workers or trusted traders who are not directly connected with
clandestine purposes.
Many closed cities existed in the
Soviet Union during the
Cold War.[1] Following the
dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, a number of them continue to exist in the
post-Soviet states, especially in
Russia. In modern Russia, such places are officially known as "closed administrative-territorial formations" (
Russian: закрытые административно-территориальные образования (ЗАТО),
romanized: zakrytye administrativno-territorial'nye obrazovaniya (ZATO)).[2]
Structure and operations
Closed cities are sometimes represented only on
classified maps that are not available to the general public.[1] In some cases, there may be no road signs or directions to closed cities, and they are usually omitted from railroad timetables and bus routes.
Sometimes, closed cities are indicated obliquely as a nearby insignificant village, with the name of the stop serving the closed city made equivocal or misleading. For mail delivery, a closed city is usually named as the nearest large city and a special postcode, for example, Arzamas‑16, Chelyabinsk‑65. The actual settlement can be rather distant from its namesakes; for instance,
Sarov, designated Arzamas-16, is in the federal republic of
Mordovia, whereas
Arzamas is in
Nizhny Novgorod Oblast (roughly 75 kilometres (47 mi) away). People not living in a closed city were subject to document checks and
security checkpoints, and explicit permission was required for them to visit.[3] To relocate to a closed city, one would need security clearance by the organization running it, such as the
KGB in Soviet closed cities.
Closed cities were sometimes guarded by a security perimeter with
barbed wire and
towers. The very fact of such a city's existence was often classified, and residents were expected not to divulge their place of residence to outsiders. This lack of freedom was often compensated by better housing conditions and a better choice of goods in retail trade than elsewhere in the country.[1] Also, in the Soviet Union, people working with classified information received a
salary bonus.[citation needed]
Soviet-era
Closed cities were established in the
Soviet Union from the late 1940s onwards under the euphemistic name of "post boxes", referring to the practice of addressing post to them via mailboxes in other cities. They fell into two distinct categories.
The first category comprised relatively small communities with sensitive military, industrial, or scientific facilities, such as arms plants or
nuclear research sites.[4] Examples are the modern towns of
Ozyorsk (
Chelyabinsk-65) with a
plutonium production plant, and
Sillamäe, the site of a
uranium enrichment facility. Even Soviet citizens were not allowed access to these places without proper authorization. In addition to this, some bigger cities were closed for unauthorized access to foreigners, while they were freely accessible to Soviet citizens. These included cities like
Perm, a center for Soviet artillery, munitions, and also aircraft engines production, and
Vladivostok, the headquarters and primary base of the
Soviet Pacific Fleet.
The second category consisted of border cities (and some whole border areas, such as the
Kaliningrad Oblast,[citation needed]Saaremaa, and
Hiiumaa), which were closed for security purposes. Comparable closed areas existed elsewhere in the
Eastern bloc; a substantial area along the
inner German border and the border between
West Germany and
Czechoslovakia was placed under similar restrictions (although by the 1970s foreigners could cross the latter by train). Citizens were required to have special permits to enter such areas.
The locations of the first category of closed cities were chosen for their geographical characteristics. They were often established in remote places deep in the
Urals and
Siberia, out of reach of enemy bombers. They were built close to rivers and lakes that were used to provide the large amounts of water needed for heavy industry and nuclear technology. Existing civilian settlements in the vicinity were often used as sources of construction labour. Although the closure of cities originated as a strictly temporary measure that was to be normalized under more favorable conditions, in practice the closed cities took on a life of their own and became a notable institutional feature of the Soviet system.[5]
Any movement to and from closed areas was tightly controlled. Foreigners were prohibited from entering them and local citizens were under stringent restrictions. They had to have special permission to travel there or leave, and anyone seeking residency was required to undergo vetting by the
NKVD and its successor agencies. Access to some closed cities was physically enforced by surrounding them with
barbed wire fences monitored by armed guards.
Mailbox
"Mailbox" (
Russian: Почтовый ящик,
romanized: Pochtovyy yashchik) was the unofficial name of a secret Soviet facility much like the closed city, but smaller, usually the size of a factory. The name of such a facility was usually secret, as were the activities there. Incoming mail was addressed to "Mailbox #XXXX", thus the name of "mailbox". Most Soviet
design bureaus (OKB) for
weapons, aircraft, space technology, military
electronics, etc., were "mailboxes".[citation needed]
Post-Soviet
Russia
Russia has the largest number of closed cities. The policy of closing cities underwent major changes in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The adoption of a
new constitution for the Russian Federation in 1993 prompted significant reforms to the status of closed cities, which were renamed "closed administrative-territorial formations" (or ZATO, after the Russian acronym).
Municipally, all such entities have a status of urban
okrugs, as mandated by the federal law.
There are currently [as of when?] 44 publicly acknowledged closed cities in Russia with a total population of about 1.5 million people. Seventy-five percent are administered by the
Russian Ministry of Defense, with the rest being administered by
Rosatom.[6] Another 15 or so closed cities are believed to exist, but their names and locations have not been publicly disclosed by the Russian government.[7]
The number of closed cities has been significantly reduced since the mid-1990s. However, on 30 October 2001, foreign travel (without any exceptions) was restricted in the northern cities of
Norilsk,
Talnakh,
Kayerkan,
Dudinka, and
Igarka. Russian and Belarusian citizens visiting these cities are not required to have any permits; however, local courts are known to deport Belarusian citizens.[8]
The number of closed cities in Russia is defined by government decree (see links further). They include the following cities. Reasons for restrictions are denoted in the descriptions below.
Uglegorsk – formerly known as Svobodny-18 (Свободный-18), site of the second Russian trial
cosmodrome of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, also called
Svobodny Cosmodrome.
Mezhgorye – formerly known as Ufa-105 (Уфа-105) and Beloretsk-15 (Белорецк-15), home to the 129th Directorate of strategic subjects' technical supply and maintenance.
Ozyorsk – formerly known as Chelyabinsk-65 (Челябинск-65) and Chelyabinsk-40 (Челябинск-40), nuclear material processing and recycling plant.[10][11]
Snezhinsk – formerly known as Chelyabinsk-70 (Челябинск-70), site of one of the two major Russian Federal Nuclear Centers.[10]
Tryokhgorny – formerly known as Zlatoust-36 (Златоуст-36), site of development of parts and machinery for atomic stations and weaponry.[10]
Kamchatka Krai
Vilyuchinsk – formerly known as Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky-50 (Петропавловск-Камчатский-50), base of a squadron of submarines from the
Russian Pacific Fleet, also involved in the production of nuclear submarines.[citation needed]
There is a list of territories within Russia that do not have closed-city status but require special permits for foreigners to visit.[18] The largest locality within such territory is the city of
Norilsk.[19]
There were two closed cities in
Estonia:
Sillamäe and
Paldiski. As with all the other industrial cities, their population was mainly Russian-speaking. Sillamäe was the site for a chemical factory that produced
fuel rods and nuclear materials for the Soviet
nuclear power plants and
nuclear weapon facilities, while Paldiski was home to a
Soviet Navynuclear submarine training centre. Sillamäe was closed until Estonia regained its independence in 1991; Paldiski remained closed until 1994, when the last Russian warship left.[20]
Baikonur, a town close to the
Baikonur Cosmodrome in
Kazakhstan, which is rented and administered by Russia. Non-resident visitors will need pre-approval from the Russian authorities to visit both the town of Baikonur itself and the Cosmodrome. Note that said approval is completely separate from just having a Russian visa. Some tourism organisations in Kazakhstan provide services in organising trips to visit Baikonur and the museums contained there.
Skrunda-1, a former Soviet communications base. Currently used by the Latvian Armed Forces as of 2022.
Moldova
Moldova has one partially closed city: the village of
Cobasna (
Rîbnița District), which is under the control of the unrecognized state of
Transnistria internationally recognized as part of Moldova. The village, on the left bank of the
Dniester river, contains
a large Soviet-era ammunition depot guarded by Russian troops.[25][26] Only the Transnistrian and Russian authorities have detailed information about this depot.[27]
Feodosia-13, Crimea – former closed town, a central storage of nuclear weapons.
Balaklava,
Sevastopol – former closed town, the location of a submarine repair plant.
Chernobyl-2,
Kyiv Oblast – former closed town, the location of the receiving unit of the
Duga radar.
Liubech-1,
Chernihiv Oblast – former closed town, the location of the transmission unit of the Duga radar.
Other countries
Albania
During the
period of communist rule in Albania, the towns of
Çorovodë and Qyteti Stalin (now
Kuçovë) were closed cities with a military airport, military industry and other critical war infrastructure.
Australia
Arnhem Land is a historical region of the
Northern Territory which requires permits for access to non-Aboriginal individuals beyond public roads.[29]
Puckapunyal is a restricted-access town in a military area in
Victoria, home to some 250 families.
China
No. 404 Factory of
China National Nuclear Corporation (中国核工业总公司第四零四厂), then the
Ministry of Nuclear Industry, in the
Gobi desert in the western part of
Gansu, is a closed town often called the nuclear town (核城). Built in 1958, it is China's biggest nuclear industry base. China built its first military
nuclear reactor[30][31] there and 80% of the core parts for China's nuclear bombs were produced there. Until the 1980s, the whole town was closed to outsiders.[32] A nuclear accident happened in 1969, involving a leak.[33] The name "mine area of Gansu" (甘肃矿区) was used for secrecy. In 2007, most residents were moved to nearby
Jiayuguan City.
Some remote areas in China, such as
Datong Hui and Tu Autonomous County (except Laoye Mountain),
Huangzhong County (except
Kumbum Monastery), and
Huangyuan County around
Xining, the capital of
Qinghai, maintain travel restrictions for foreigners. A foreigner must apply for an alien travel document (外国人旅行证) in advance, and report their accommodation to local police within 24 hours after entering the area.[34]
Germany
Riems, Germany, an island in the Bay of Greifswald, is home to the oldest virological research institution in the world and is closed to the public. Quarantine stables and laboratories have a high level of security. This means employees and visitors to the complex must change their clothes and shower when entering and exiting.
The Frontier Closed Area (FCA) is a fenced stretch of land along the northern border of Hong Kong, which serves as a buffer between the closed border and the rest of the territory. For anyone to enter the area, a Closed Area Permit is required. Between 1951 and 2012, it contained dozens of villages over an area of 28 square kilometres. Upon several stages of reduction, by 2016, the border town of
Sha Tau Kok remains as the only settlement within the FCA.
South Korea
Within the
Korean Demilitarized Zone between
North Korea and
South Korea are two "peace villages" (one maintained by each nation):
Daeseong-dong (South) and (possibly)
Kijŏng-dong (North). Access by non-residents to Daeseong-dong requires a military escort, while Kijŏng-dong is not accessible to visitors.
North Korea
The
Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center sits within a closed city that occupies 24.8 square kilometers (9.6 sq mi).[35] The classification of a city being closed or not closed is dubious in a North Korean context, as North Korean citizens generally need a permit if they wish to travel outside of their county,[citation needed] and further permits required for entry to
Pyongyang,[citation needed] thus the whole nation could be considered closed.
Mecca is strictly closed to non-Muslims. Similar restrictions are in place for the city center of
Medina.[39][40]
South Africa
Alexander Bay, Northern Cape. After diamonds were discovered along this coast in 1925 by
Hans Merensky,
Alexander Bay became known for its mining activities. The town was a high-security area and permits were needed when entered. Today, it is no longer a high-security area and no permits are needed.
Sweden
Fårö and the northernmost parts of
Gotland were closed to foreign citizens until 1998.[41]
United Kingdom
Imber, England, has been closed since 1943 when its residents were evicted by the
British Army, who continue to use the village as a training ground for
urban warfare. While most of the village's buildings have been demolished and replaced for training purposes, the village church (
St Giles') was kept intact and the village is occasionally opened to the public during holidays.
Foulness Island contains two villages with permanent residences, but public right of way is limited to certain paths and access controlled by the
Ministry of Defence. The site contains an active live firing range, as well as several inactive firing ranges and other structures as well as the site of the development and testing of the UK's first atomic weapons.
Mercury, Nevada, is within the
Nevada Test Site, the primary testing location of American nuclear devices from 1951 to 1992, currently called Nevada National Security Site, and is currently closed as part of this site.
Between 1957 and 1962, approximately one-third of the United States was closed to Soviet citizens.[49] Only eight states were accessible in their entirety: Oregon, Wyoming, Utah, North Carolina, Arkansas, Vermont, Missouri, and Mississippi.[49][50]
In popular culture
The 2020 film Tenet prominently features a fictional Soviet-era closed city in Siberia called Stalsk-12.[51]
^Victor Zaslavsky, "Ethnic group divided: social stratification and nationality policy in the Soviet Union", p. 224, in Peter Joseph Potichnyj, The Soviet Union: Party and Society, Cambridge University Press, 1988.
ISBN0-521-34460-3.
^Nadezhda Kutepova & Olga Tsepilova, "A short history of the ZATO", pp. 148–149, in Cultures of Contamination, Volume 14: Legacies of Pollution in Russia and the US (Research in Social Problems and Public Policy), editors Michael Edelstein, Maria Tysiachniouk, Lyudmila V. Smirnova. JAI Press, 2007.
ISBN0-7623-1371-4
^Greg Kaser, "Motivation and Redirection: Rationale and Achievements in the Russian Closed Nuclear Cities", p. 3, in Countering Nuclear and Radiological Terrorism, editors David J. Diamond, Samuel Apikyan, Greg Kaser. Springer, 2006.
ISBN1-4020-4897-1
^环保部西北核与辐射安全监督站驻四〇四厂监督点调研团.
"静静地守候 默默地奉献". No. 25 September 2013. 中央国家机关团工委2013年“根在基层·中国梦”(美丽中国)调研实践活动. Archived from
the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 31 December 2015.
^http://sdsharkdiving.com/isla-guadalupe/ Sdsharkdiving.com/isla-guadalupe. San Diego Shark Diving. Isla Guadalupe White Shark Trip - FAQs. Retrieved August 17, 2018.
^"DPG Visitors Guide"(PDF). United States Army, Dugway Proving Ground. p. 9. Archived from
the original(pdf) on November 12, 2017. Retrieved November 10, 2017.
Bukharin, Oleg (September/October 1998).
"Retooling Russia's Nuclear Cities". The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists – Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science.