Golconda diamonds are mined in the Godavari-Krishna delta region of
Andhra Pradesh, India.
Golconda Fort in the western part of modern-day
Hyderabad was a seat of the
Golconda Sultanate and became an important centre for
diamond enhancement,
lapidary, and trading. Golconda diamonds are graded as
Type IIa, are formed of pure
carbon, are devoid of
nitrogen, and are large with
high clarity. They are often described as diamonds of the
first water, making them among history's most-celebrated diamonds. The phrase "Golconda diamond" became synonymous with diamonds of incomparable quality.
The
Golconda diamond industry was at its peak in the 16th-to-18th centuries when 23 mines, of which
Kollur Mine was the most active, operated in the region and 30,000 people at a time worked in one mine.[A] The output from all of the mines in Golconda is estimated to be around 10,000,000 carats (2.0 t). In 2015,
Osmania University in collaboration with
Geological Survey of India discovered potential new sites for
diamond mining in the region, though as of 2022[update] mining had not started.
Several literary legends were inspired by Golconda diamonds; these include
Sindbad the Sailor's valley of diamonds, the gem lore of
Marco Polo, and the theme of
Russell Conwell's inspirational lecture "
Acres of Diamonds". According to folklore, some Golconda diamonds are cursed; these impart good luck to their owners or have mystical powers while others were worn as
talismans. In 2013, the
Princie Diamond from the
Jewels of the Nizams was auctioned for US$39.3 million—the highest-recorded auction price for Golconda Diamonds and the world record for US$1.1 million per
carat. In
a heist in 2019, the
Dresden White Diamond was stolen along with jewels worth US$1.2 billion.
Until the 17th century, mines in this region were the only source of diamonds on Earth.[10][14][15] According to the records of 18th-and-19th-century
geologists,
researchers, and traders, the region south of the
Kurnool district near the
Krishna River valley in and around
NTR district,
Palnadu, and
Guntur; the
Godavari delta in Rampachodavaram and Bhadrachalam; north-eastern
Madhya Pradesh; eastern
Chhattisgarh; western
Jharkhand; and north-western
Odisha are possible historical sources of diamond.[9][16] The best-known region among these was historically known as Telingana or Tilling, and was renamed Golconda during the
Deccan sultanates period and generally known as the Godavari delta.[17] As European travellers and traders increasingly engaged in
trading with producers of this region, the region's diamonds came to be referred to as "Golconda diamonds".[14][18]
Diamond mine in the Golconda region 1725 CE from the collection of
Pieter van der Aa—a Dutch publisher known for preparing maps and atlases.
The peak period of Golconda diamond mining was the 16th-to-18th centuries, when the region was controlled by the
Golconda Sultanate and the
Nizams of Hyderabad.[17][19][20] The mines were leased under the supervision of regional governors, of whom prominent 17th-century diamond trader
Mir Jumla became the Grand vizier (Prime Minister) of the Golconda Sultanate. He established a network of diamond merchants in Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia—up to China and the
Malay Archipelago.[21][22][23]Shantidas Jhaveri was another 17th-century diamond trader.[24]
Golconda diamonds were mined from
alluvial soils alongside river beds.[25] Mines were usually up to 4 fathoms (7.3 m; 24 ft) deep.[24][26] When mining reached
groundwater, digging was halted. Stony substances were then collected for assortment and examined for diamonds.[27] Raw diamonds from the mines were typically transported to Golconda—now the western part of
Hyderabad—[28]) for skilled lapidary, enhancement, further evaluation, and sale.[17][19][20] The art of
macle, which is a form of rough diamond that is used to produce jewellery, was first developed in the Golconda region.[29] Of the 38 diamond mines in India at the time, 23 were located in the Golconda Sultanate, of which
Kollur Mine was prominent and employed 60,000 workers at one time.[19][30] Most of these mines were fully active until 1830 but were gradually abandoned as they became either submerged by the backwaters of the
Pulichintala irrigation dam or became depleted. Diamond mining in the region gradually declined and finally officially closed.[31][32]
In 2015, the Centre of Exploration Geophysics of
Osmania University and the
Geological Survey of India (GSI) conducted research that identified three zones that contain 21 potential new diamond-mining sites near the delta of the Krishna and
Bhima rivers, and in the beds of the Krishna,
Tungabhadra and
Penna rivers. According to the research, the sites contain
volcanic pipes that probably bear kimberlite and possibly diamonds.[33][34] According to
Outlook India, in 2022, some companies applied for mining rights in the region of Andhra Pradesh, soon after the
National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) discovered diamond deposits in the seven districts of the state.[4]
Trading
The Golconda region was a major trading centre and the source of the world's most-famous diamonds.[14] Until the end of the 19th century, it was the primary source of the finest and largest diamonds in the world, making the name "Golconda diamond" synonymous with high-quality diamonds.[17][19][30][35] It has been estimated the Golconda region traded around 10 million
carats of diamonds.[36] A unit of measurement for Golconda diamonds was the
Ratti (7 ⁄8 of a
carat),[37] and the most-common currency was the Golconda
Pagoda, which was also called Hun.[38][39][40]
A scene of
Machilipatnam port in 1676 AD, it was a prime seaport of Golconda Sultanate
Golconda had been trading diamonds with European kingdoms since at least the days of
Marco Polo (1254–1324).[14] During the 1420s,
Niccolò de' Conti, a prominent Italian traveller and merchant who lived in India, had a detailed account of diamond valleys in the Golconda region.[13] The 15th-century
Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India and the 16th-century Golconda Sultanate's new port at
Machilipatnam increased the production and trade of Golconda diamonds. The emergence of demand for Golconda diamonds led to the exploration and discoveries of mines in the region that produced brilliant diamonds.[38][41][42][43][44]
In the 17th century, under the Golconda Sultanate, when new mines were discovered and leased to the miners, an agreement called "Qaul" would be signed under the supervision of regional governors, according to which, for employing 100 workers, miners would pay four pagodas per day, and monthly rent was based on the strength of the workers on the mining site. Provisions were supplied only by the governor with 50 percent extra excise duty. Large diamonds from the site were exclusively reserved for the rulers and to be sold with concessions.[38]Bania and
Khatri castes—merchant and trading communities in India—held most of mines. In the early 1600s, some Dutch miners of the
Dutch East India Company were granted mining rights.[38][45] The 17th-century French explorer
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier reported he was "permitted to examine" the egg-shaped Great Moghul diamond, which is now lost and said to have been cut into smaller diamonds. He reported having seen a flat diamond called the
Great Table diamond in Golconda.
Jean de Thévenot,
François Bernier or Antoine Destremau were French traders in Golconda diamonds.[19][46][47]
In 1621 and 1622, when the Golconda rulers learned about the demand for Golconda diamonds in Europe, they seized all of the mines and temporarily halted mining to increase the price, which then doubled. In 1627, high prices led Dutch traders to stop purchasing, and the British
East India Company brought investments and purchased the diamonds.[38] The company's monopoly continued alongside indigenous traders such as Mir Jumla II,
Virji Vora, and
Kasi Veranna until the mines became depleted in the 1830s. Most of the impoverished governments and princely rulers were removed from power, forcing them sell their jewels—including Golconda diamonds—which were later auctioned. Due to their royal lineage, mystical tales, and advertising campaigns by companies, Golconda diamonds became the global status reference.[48]
Fig I. The shaded area is the base. Fig II. A: flaw; B and C: notches cut to hold the stone in a setting; D: flaw created by fracture at E; F: fracture created by a blow; G: unpolished cleavage plane; H: basal cleavage plane. Fig III. The opposite side shows facets and peak of the "Mountain of Light"
Historically, diamonds of high quality were mined in the Golconda region,[50][B] and were reserved for emperors and rulers.[51] Sometimes, diamonds were considered to have supernatural powers, and were worn as amulets and talismans.[52] The
Shah Jahan Diamond, which is currently part of
Al Saba Collection, was once an amulet of
Mughal emperors.[53][54] Diamonds were treasured as gemstones,[50] and were believed to be a gift from God to humanity, and owning them was a sign of supremacy.[53] Golconda diamonds were popularized in the Middle East and the Western world by mediaeval and
modern-period travellers and traders such as Niccolò de' Conti,
Muhammad al-Idrisi, Marco Polo, and Jean-Baptiste Tavernier.[14][55] Diamonds from India—most of which were Golconda diamonds—were used to decorate the crowns, coronets and sceptres of every nation;[56][57] it was considered a point of pride by any ruler to own a Golconda diamond.[56] The
Industrial Revolution in the 19th century brought growth to the world economy, and the introduction of sophisticated cutting and polishing techniques led to a higher worldwide demand for diamonds.[50][58] The popularity of Golconda diamonds has risen since the 1950s because of successful advertising campaigns by traders.[59][60] They continue to be a popular gemstone in the 21st century.[14][15][61]
Physical properties
Golconda diamonds are the world's most magnificent diamonds.[62][63][64] They are formed of pure
carbon and have no nitrogen,[65] and are rated high on grading standards, giving them the rare
Type IIa designation—(Type IIa count less than two percent of the world's natural diamonds.[15]).[14][15][61] They are large and naturally occur in many colours but most of them are known for their
colourless clarity and
material properties. Some are popular for their colours,[14][55][66] for which they are characterized as
Diamonds of First water.[55]
Although Golconda diamonds are known for their size and clarity, the diamond mines of the Golconda region are now depleted and inactive.[67] Later discoveries of diamond deposits in regions such as Brazil post-1730, Australia post-1851, and Africa post-1866 provided significant supplies of diamonds, although their clarity generally does not match that of Golconda diamonds.[27][68][69] For these reasons, Golconda diamonds remain among the world's most-celebrated diamonds.[14][67]
The world's top-four pink diamonds are from Golconda.[53]Cardinal Mazarin was an influential
Chief minister of France during the reign of
Louis XIII and
Louis XIV; Mazarin, a connoisseur of jewels, sponsored Jean Baptiste Tavernier's journey to India to collect diamonds; among his collection is the 19.07-carat, light-pink
Le Grand Mazarin Diamond, which he always kept close to him. In his will, Mazarin bequeathed the diamond to decorate the French crown; all of the French rulers from Louis XIV to
Napoleon III have worn it. After France's defeat in the
Franco-Prussian War (1870), the diamond, along with other French Crown Jewels, was sold to settle the losses.
Frederic Boucheron, a jewellery-house owner, purchased it.[75]
Popular culture
While travelling in the
Middle East in 1869,
Russell Conwell, a lawyer and educator who founded
Temple University in
Philadelphia, US, met an Arab
bedouin who told him a story in which "beneath Ali Hafed's farm sat the great mines and diamonds of Golconda". Intrigued by the tale, Conwell prepared his inspirational lecture "
Acres of Diamonds".[76][77]
In 1959, the
Krupp Diamond ring was stolen from German actor Vera Krupp (1909–1967) in a robbery at her house. The diamond was recovered after the
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) became involved. In 1968, it came into the possession of
Elizabeth Taylor, who renamed it the "Elizabeth Taylor Diamond".[82][83] Taylor was fond of jewellery and owned a collection of gems and jewellery; she also published a book about her collection called My Love Affair with Jewelry (2002).[84][85][86]
The pink, cushion-cut, 34.65-carat
Princie Diamond used to be part of the
Jewels of the Nizams of Hyderabad; it was auctioned in 2013 by
Christie's and sold for US$39.3 million, which is the highest-recorded auction price for a Golconda diamond and a world record for US$1.1 million per carat.[87]
On 28 July 2014, the American television channel Animal Planet presented an episode called "The Golconda Curse" in the series Lost treasure hunters Season I.[88]
The Cartier Toussaint Necklace in the 2018 film Ocean's 8 was inspired by the necklace of
Ranjitsinhji, ruler of
Nawanagar State in India. The main attraction of the necklace is its centrepiece 136.25-carat (27.250 g)
Queen of Holland Diamond, whose place of origin is unknown but based on its characteristics, gemologists placed it among the Golconda diamonds.[89]
Legends and folklore
Women in the process of washing earthy substances from soil, at a site of an unnamed Golconda mine.[27]
According to legend, the Regent Diamond was discovered between 1698 and 1701 at Kollur Mine. A slave worker who found the diamond smuggled it out by hiding it deep inside a self-inflicted cut. The slave wanted to escape from India with the diamond so he contacted the captain of a British ship. The slave and the captain agreed to share equally in the proceeds from the diamond's sale in exchange for safe passage. Later, the captain stole the diamond, killed the slave, and sold the diamond to an Indian merchant named Jamchand. Jamchand supposedly sold it to
Thomas Pitt, who in turn sold it to
Philippe d'Orléans.[93]
According to pervasive folklore narrated by Marco Polo about his 13th-century visits to the Golconda region, the diamond valley was replete with venomous snakes, making obtaining the diamonds dangerous. The diamond traders took a herd of cattle to the hilltop near the valley. After slaughtering the cattle, they catapulted cow flesh towards the diamond valley; the flesh became stuck to the diamonds, which were picked up by eagles and vultures that carried the cow flesh to their nests to eat. The stones remained after the birds consumed the flesh, allowing the stones to be tracked and collected by the local merchants' workers.[13][94] According to Jean R. Brink, who wrote Renaissance Culture in Context: Theory and Practice (2017), this legend is repeated in many mediaeval Arabic and Chinese literary works. It was also repeated by Marco Polo, who visited the region's capital
Warangal but did not visit the mining sites.[95]
Being the world's most-famous, large, and valuable stones with interesting histories, Golconda diamonds attract envy and fascination, for which many controversies, robberies, and scandals have occurred.[96][97] The
Affair of the Diamond Necklace (1784–1786) was about a 2,800-carat necklace containing 647 gems. The incident brought ignominy to
Queen Marie Antoinette and later instigated the
French Revolution.[98][99] In 1792, the French Crown Jewels were stolen from the Garde Meuble (Royal Treasury); although most of the jewels were traced, the thieves sold the Sancy and Regent Diamonds, and the Royal French Blue Diamond was cut and renamed the Hope Diamond. The thief returned the Mazarin Diamond in exchange for a pardon and the diamond was restored to the French crown.[75][100][101] In 1811,
Napoleon Bonaparte gifted his wife
Marie Louise the
Napoleon Diamond Necklace, which became a sensation during the
Great Depression (1929) when
Archduke Leopold of Austria was imprisoned on
larceny charges connected with the necklace sale.[102]
^The term Golconda mines originally denoted those (Kollur, Paritala, and other regional mines) that were mined during the Qutub Shahi period and continued until the time of the
British Raj. The Deccan Sultanate of Qutub Shahis was known as Golconda Sultanate. Vajrakarur in present-day
Anantapur district was a later-exploited mine and Amaragiri (present-day
Kollapur,
Mahbubnagar district) was not known until much later.
^Historically colorless diamonds and general diamonds were mined from the Golconda region (within the alluvial deposits of the
Krishna,
Godavari and
Penna rivers, because in those periods the term "Golconda diamonds" was not named, thus they were referred to as Indian Diamonds