Limoniidae is the largest of four
crane fly families, with more than 10,700 species in more than 150 genera. Some studies have suggested it to be a
paraphyletic group, with some limoniids being more closely related to
Tipulidae and
Cylindrotomidae than to other limoniids.[1][2][3] Limoniid crane flies can usually be distinguished by the way the wings are held at rest. Limoniids usually hold/fold the wings along the back of the body, whereas other crane flies usually hold them out at right angles. Snow flies (genus: Chionea) such as Chionea scita have no wings at all.[4] Limoniids are also usually smaller than other crane flies, with some exceptions.[5]
The classification of Limoniid crane flies has been varied in the past, with the group treated both as subfamily and family,[6] but the following classification is currently accepted.[7][8][9][10][11][12] (Species counts are approximate, and vary over time.).[9] Recent
phylogenetic analyses have revealed the family to be paraphyletic and further research is suggested.[1][7]
Family Limoniidae (Limoniid Crane Flies, more than 10,700 species)
Subfamily
Chioneinae (4,324 species and subspecies)
Limoniids are medium or small-sized, rarely large. The
proboscis or
rostrum lacks a beak. The apical segment of the
maxillary palpi is short and never longer than subapical one. The
antennae are, in most species, 14- or 16-segmented (rarely 6-, 10-, or 17-segmented), usually verticillate (whorls of trichia) and only exceptionally ctenidial or serrate (Rhipidia). There is a distinct V-shaped suture between the
mesonotal prescutum and scutum (near the level of the wing bases). The wings are monochromatic or punctate and (in females more often than in males). sometimes shortened or reduced. The
subcosta always fuses with the costa through Sc1. Radial vein R2 does not fuse with the costa, as in most other crane flies, but with radial vein R3. The radial sector Rs has one or two forks. Additional crossveins are sometimes present in cells r3 an1 and m. Cells m1 and d are often not present. The genitalia of males have large separated
gonocoxis and one or two pairs of appendages which are sometimes greatly folded (Dicranomyia, etc.). The
ovipositor of the female has
sclerotizedcerci.
Biology
Mostly,
larvae are
aquatic or semi-aquatic. In comparison, most other
Tipuloidea larvae are terrestrial, though some are aquatic and found in huge numbers in
lotic habitats like the limoniid larvae. Various species have evolved to feed on different food sources, so
phytophagous,
saprophagous,
mycetophagous and
predatory species occur.
Limoniids occupy a wide range of habitats and micro habitats: in earth rich in humus, in swamps and marshes, in leaf litter and in wet spots in woods (numerous genera and species); in soils with only moderate humus content along stream borders (Gonomyia Meigen, Rhabdomastix Skuse, Arctoconopa Alexander, Hesperoconopa Alexander); in dry to saturated decaying wood in streams, where the larvae feed on fungal mycelia (Gnophomyia Osten Sacken, Teucholabis Osten Sacken, Lipsothrix Loew); in decaying plant materials (various subgenera and species of Limonia), in woody and fleshy fungi (Limonia (Metalimnobia Matsumura); in fresh water, especially rapidly flowing streams (Antocha Osten Sacken, Hesperoconopa Alexander, Cryptolabis Osten Sacken); intertidal zones and brackish water (Limonia (Idioglochina Alexander, Limonia (Diuanomyia) Stephens); freshwater aquatic environment during the larval stage and nearby margin areas for pupation (Limonia Meigen, Thaumastoptera Mik, many
Pediciini,
Limnophilinae, and
Eriopterini); steep cliff faces supporting a constantly wet film of algae (some species of Limonia Meigen, Orimarga Osten Sacken Elliptera Schiner); in moist to wet cushions of
mosses or
liverworts growing on rocks or earth (various species).[13][14]
Phantolabis lacustris was the first tipuloid species to be observed skating on the surface of water. It possesses morphological adaptations to allow for this phenomenon.[15]
^
abcPetersen, Matthew J.; Bertone, Matthew A.; Wiegmann, Brian M.; Courtney, Gregory W. (2010). "Phylogenetic synthesis of morphological and molecular data reveals new insights into the higher-level classification of Tipuloidea (Diptera)". Systematic Entomology. 35 (3): 526–545.
doi:
10.1111/j.1365-3113.2010.00524.x.
S2CID86724439.
^Alexander C.P., Byers G.W. (1981) Tipulidae. in: McAlpine J.F. et al. (Ed.), Manual of Nearctic Diptera. Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, pp. 153–1902
ISBN0660107317pdfArchived 2013-12-01 at the
Wayback Machine
^Ujvarosi, L., Poti T., 2006: Studies on the community structure of the Tipuloidea (Insecta, Diptera) assemblages of the După Luncă Marsh, Eastern Carpathians. Acta Biol. Debr. Oecol. Hung. 14: 253-262
pdfArchived 2014-01-16 at the
Wayback Machine
^Oosterbroek, P.
Superfamily Tipuloidea, Family Tipulidae. Chapter 2 In: Evenhuis, N. L. (Ed.) Catalog of the Diptera of the Australasian and Oceanian Regions, Issue 86 of Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication. Apollo Press. 1989.