By the end of the
Middle Ages, lapis lazuli began to be exported to Europe, where it was ground into powder and made into the pigment,
ultramarine. Ultramarine was used by some of the most important artists of the
Renaissance and
Baroque, including
Masaccio,
Perugino,
Titian and
Vermeer, and was often reserved for the clothing of the central figures of their paintings, especially the
Virgin Mary. Ultramarine has also been found in
dental tartar of
medievalnuns and
scribes, perhaps as a result of licking their painting brushes while producing medieval texts and manuscripts.[9]
Major sources
Mines in northeast Afghanistan continue to be a major source of lapis lazuli. Important amounts are also produced from mines west of
Lake Baikal in Russia, and in the
Andes mountains in
Chile which is the source that the
Inca used to carve artifacts and jewelry. Smaller quantities are mined in Pakistan, Italy, Mongolia, the United States, and Canada.[10]
Etymology
Lapis is the
Latin word for "stone" and lazulī is the
genitive form of the
Medieval Latinlazulum, which is taken from the
Arabicلازوردlāzaward, itself from the
Persianلاژوردlāžavard/lāževard and/or لاجوردlājevard. It means "sky" or "heaven"; so this is a "stone (of/from) the sky" or "stone (of/from) heaven".[11] For example, in the following
Persian poem by
Ferdowsi:
As the sun struck the dome of lazuli,
A golden curtain was drawn, most truly.
Historically, it was mined in the
Badakhshan region of upper Afghanistan. Lazulum is etymologically related to the color blue, and used as a root for the word for blue in several languages, including Spanish and Portuguese azul as well as English azure.[11][12]
Lapis lazuli seen through a microscope (x240 magnification)
The intense blue color is due to the presence of the
trisulfurradical anion (S•− 3) in the crystal.[15] The presence of disulfur (S•− 2) and tetrasulfur (S•− 4) radicals can shift the color towards yellow or red, respectively.[16] These radical anions substitute for the chloride anions within the
sodalite structure.[17] The S•− 3 radical anion exhibits a visible absorption band in the range 595–620 nm with high molar absorptivity, leading to its bright blue color.[18]
Sources
Lapis lazuli is found in limestone in the
Kokcha River valley of
Badakhshan province in north-eastern Afghanistan, where the
Sar-i Sang mine deposits have been worked for more than 6,000 years.[19] Afghanistan was the source of lapis for the ancient Persian, Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations, as well as the later Greeks and Romans. Ancient Egyptians obtained the material through trade with Mesopotamians, as part of
Egypt–Mesopotamia relations. During the height of the
Indus Valley civilisation, approximately 2000 BC, the Harappan colony, now known as
Shortugai, was established near the lapis mines.[7]
In addition to the Afghan deposits, lapis is also extracted in the
Andes (near
Ovalle,
Chile); and to the west of
Lake Baikal in Siberia, Russia, at the Tultui lazurite deposit. It is mined in smaller amounts in
Angola, Argentina,
Burma, Pakistan, Canada, Italy, India, and in the United States in
California and
Colorado.[10]
Uses and substitutes
Lapis takes an excellent polish and can be made into jewellery, carvings, boxes,
mosaics, ornaments, small statues, and vases. Interior items and finishing buildings can be also made with lapis. During the
Renaissance, lapis was ground and processed to make the
pigmentultramarine for use in
frescoes and
oil painting. Its usage as a pigment in oil paint largely ended during the early 19th century, when a chemically identical synthetic variety became available.
Crystals of lazurite (the main mineral in lapis lazuli) from the Sar-i Sang Mining District in Afghanistan
A polished block of lapis lazuli
Natural ultramarine pigment made from ground lapis lazuli. During the
Middle Ages and
Renaissance it was the most expensive pigment available (gold being second) and was often reserved for depicting the robes of
Angels or the
Virgin Mary
Ancient Egyptian cult image of
Ptah; 945–600 BC; lapis lazuli; height of the figure: 5.2 cm, height of the dais: 0.4 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
Lapis lazuli has been mined in Afghanistan and exported to the Mediterranean world and South Asia since the
Neolithic age,[22][23] along the ancient trade route between Afghanistan and the
Indus Valley dating to the 7th millennium BC. Quantities of these beads have also been found at 4th millennium BC settlements in Northern
Mesopotamia, and at the
Bronze Age site of
Shahr-e Sukhteh in southeast Iran (3rd millennium BC). A dagger with a lapis handle, a bowl inlaid with lapis, amulets, beads, and inlays representing eyebrows and beards, were found in the Royal Tombs of the Sumerian city-state of
Ur from the 3rd millennium BC.[22]
Lapis was also used in ancient Persia, Mesopotamia by the
Akkadians,
Assyrians, and
Babylonians for
seals and jewelry. It is mentioned several times in the Mesopotamian poem, the
Epic of Gilgamesh (17th–18th century BC), one of the oldest known works of literature. The
Statue of Ebih-Il, a 3rd millennium BC statue found in the ancient city-state of
Mari in modern-day
Syria, now in the
Louvre, uses lapis lazuli inlays for the irises of the eyes.[24]
In ancient Egypt, lapis lazuli was a favorite stone for amulets and ornaments such as
scarabs. Lapis jewellery has been found at excavations of the
Predynastic Egyptian site
Naqada (3300–3100 BC). At
Karnak, the relief carvings of
Thutmose III (1479–1429 BC) show fragments and barrel-shaped pieces of lapis lazuli being delivered to him as tribute. Powdered lapis was used as eyeshadow by
Cleopatra.[7][25]
Jewelry made of lapis lazuli has also been found at
Mycenae attesting to relations between the Myceneans and the developed civilizations of Egypt and the East.[26]
Pliny the Elder wrote that lapis lazuli is "opaque and sprinkled with specks of gold". Because the stone combines the blue of the heavens and golden glitter of the sun, it was emblematic of success in the old Jewish tradition. In the early Christian tradition lapis lazuli was regarded as the stone of
Virgin Mary.
In late classical times and as late as the Middle Ages, lapis lazuli was often called
sapphire (sapphirus in Latin, sappir in Hebrew),[27] though it had little to do with the stone today known as the blue
corundum variety sapphire. In his book on stones, the Greek scientist
Theophrastus described "the sapphirus, which is speckled with gold," a description which matches lapis lazuli.[28]
There are many references to "sapphire" in the
Old Testament, but most scholars agree that, since sapphire was not known before the Roman Empire, they most likely are references to lapis lazuli. For instance, Exodus 24:10: "And they saw the God of Israel, and there was under his feet as it were a paved work of a sapphire stone..." (KJV). The words used in the Latin Vulgate Bible in this citation are "quasi opus lapidis sapphirini", the terms for lapis lazuli.[29] Modern translations of the Bible, such as the New Living Translation Second Edition,[30] refer to lapis lazuli in most instances instead of sapphire.
The poet,
William Butler Yeats, describes a figurine of sculpted lapis lazuli in a poem entitled "Lapis Lazuli". The sculpture of three men from China, a bird, and a musical instrument serves in the poem as a reminder of "gaiety" in the face of tragedy.[33]
Sumerian necklace beads; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 54 cm;
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)
Sumerian necklace; 2600–2500 BC; gold and lapis lazuli; length: 22.5 cm; from the
Royal Cemetery at Ur (Iraq); Metropolitan Museum of Art
Ancient Egyptian scarab finger ring; 1850–1750 BC; lapis lazuli scarab set in gold plate and on a gold wire ring lapis-lazuli; diameter: 2.5 cm, the scarab: 1.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Neo-Babylonian conical seal; 7th–6th century BC; lapis lazuli; height: 2.7 cm, diameter: 2.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Ancient Egyptian plaque with an
Eye of Horus; 664–332 BC; lapis lazuli; length: 1.8 cm, width: 1.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Greek or Roman ring stone; lapis lazuli; 2.1 x 1.6 x 0.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Roman bead ornament; gold and lapis lazuli; 3 × 1.8 × 0.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
20th century silver ring with polished lapis oval; 2 x 2.4 x 1 cm
^DIKSHIT, K.N. (2012). "The Rise of Indian Civilization: Recent Archaeological Evidence from the Plains of 'Lost' River Saraswati and Radio-Metric Dates". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 72/73: 1–42.
ISSN0045-9801.
JSTOR43610686.
^Alcestis Papademetriou, Mycenae, John S. Latsis Public Benefit Foundation, 2015, p. 32.
^Schumann, Walter (2006) [2002]. "Sapphire". Gemstones of the World. trans. Annette Englander & Daniel Shea (Newly revised & expanded 3rd ed.). New York: Sterling. p. 102. In antiquity and as late as the Middle Ages, the name sapphire was understood to mean what is today described as lapis lazuli.
^Theophrastus, On Stones (De Lapidibus) – IV-23, translated by D.E. Eichholtz, Oxford University Press, 1965.
^Pearlie Braswell-Tripp (2013), Real Diamonds and Precious Stones of the BibleISBN978-1-4797-9644-1
Bakhtiar, Lailee McNair, Afghanistan's Blue Treasure Lapis Lazuli, Front Porch Publishing, 2011,
ISBN978-0615573700
Bariand, Pierre, "Lapis Lazuli", Mineral Digest, Vol 4 Winter 1972.
Bowersox, Gary W.; Chamberlin, Bonita E. (1995). Gemstones of Afghanistan. Tucson, AZ: Geoscience Press.
Herrmann, Georgina, "Lapis Lazuli: The Early Phases of Its Trade", Oxford University Dissertation, 1966.
Korzhinskij, D. S., "Gisements bimetasomatiques de philogophite et de lazurite de l'Archen du pribajkale", Traduction par Mr. Jean Sagarzky-B.R.G.M., 1944.
Lapparent A. F., Bariand, P. et Blaise, J., "Une visite au gisement de lapis lazuli de Sar-e-Sang du Hindu Kouch, Afghanistan," C.R. Somm.S.G.P.p. 30, 1964.
Oldershaw, Cally (2003). Firefly Guide to Gems. Toronto: Firefly Books..
Wise, Richard W., Secrets of the Gem Trade: The Connoisseur's Guide to Precious Gemstones, 2016
ISBN9780972822329
Wyart J. Bariand P, Filippi J., "Le Lapis Lazuli de Sar-e-SAng", Revue de Geographie Physique et de Geologie Dynamique (2) Vol. XIV Pasc. 4 pp. 443–448, Paris, 1972.