The yellow badge, also known as the yellow patch, the Jewish badge, or the yellow star (
German: Judenstern,
lit.'Jew's star'), was a special accessory that
Jews were required to wear in certain non-Jewish societies throughout history. A Jew's ethno-religious identity, which would be denoted by the badge, would help to
mark them as an outsider.[1] Legislation that mandated Jewish subjects to wear such items has been documented in some Middle Eastern
caliphates and in some European kingdoms during the
medieval period and the
early modern period. The most recent usage of yellow badges was during
World War II, when Jews living in
Nazi Germany and
German-occupied Europe were ordered to wear a yellow
Star of David to keep their Jewish identity disclosed to the public in the years leading up to
the Holocaust.
History
Muslim world
The practice of wearing special clothing or markings to distinguish Jews and other non-Muslims (
dhimmis) in Muslim-dominated countries seems to have been introduced in the
Umayyad Caliphate by Caliph
Umar II in the early 8th century. The practice was revived and reinforced by the
Abbasid caliph
al-Mutawakkil (847–861), subsequently remaining in force for centuries.[2] A
genizah document from 1121 gives the following description of decrees issued in Baghdad:
Two yellow badges [are to be displayed], one on the headgear and one on the neck. Furthermore, each Jew must hang round his neck a piece of lead weighing [3 grammes] with the word dhimmi on it. He also has to wear a belt round his waist. The women have to wear one red and one black shoe and have a small bell on their necks or shoes.[3]
Medieval and early modern Europe
In largely Catholic Medieval Europe, Jews and Muslims were required to wear distinguishable clothing in some periods. These measures were not seen as being inconsistent with the papal bulls Sicut Judaeis. Most significantly, the
Fourth Council of the Lateran headed by
Pope Innocent III ruled in 1215 that Jews and Muslims must wear distinguishable dress (Latin habitus). Canon 68 reads, in part:
In some provinces a difference in dress distinguishes the Jews or
Saracens from the Christians, but in certain others such a confusion has grown up that they cannot be distinguished by any difference. Thus it happens at times that through error Christians have relations with the women of Jews or Saracens, and Jews and Saracens with Christian women. Therefore, that they may not, under pretext of error of this sort, excuse themselves in the future for the excesses of such prohibited intercourse, we decree that such Jews and Saracens of both sexes in every Christian province and at all times shall be marked off in the eyes of the public from other peoples through the character of their dress. Particularly, since it may be read in the writings of Moses [
Numbers 15:37–41], that this very law has been enjoined upon them.[4]
Innocent III had in 1199 confirmed Sicut Judaeis, which was also confirmed by
Pope Honorius III in 1216. In 1219, Honorius III issued a dispensation to the Jews of
Castile,[5] the largest Jewish population in Europe. Spanish Jews normally wore
turbans, which presumably met the requirement to be distinctive.[6] Elsewhere, local laws were introduced to bring the canon into effect.[7] The identifying mark varied from one country to another, and from period to period.
In 1227, the Synod of
Narbonne, in canon 3, ruled:
That Jews may be distinguished from others, we decree and emphatically command that in the center of the breast (of their garments) they shall wear an oval badge, the measure of one finger in width and one half a palm in height.[4]
However, these ecclesiastic pronouncements required legal sanctions of a temporal authority. In 1228,
James I of Aragon ordered Jews of
Aragon to wear the badge;[5] and in 1265, the Siete Partidas, a legal code enacted in Castile by
Alfonso X but not implemented until many years later, included a requirement for Jews to wear distinguishing marks.[8] On 19 June 1269,
Louis IX of France imposed a fine of ten
livres (one livre was equivalent to a pound of silver) on Jews found in public without a badge (
Latin: rota,
lit. 'wheel',
French: rouelle or roue).[5][9] The enforcement of wearing the badge is repeated by local councils, with varying degrees of fines, at
Arles 1234 and 1260,
Béziers 1246,
Albi 1254,
Nîmes 1284 and 1365,
Avignon 1326 and 1337,
Rodez 1336, and
Vanves 1368.[5] The "rota" looked like a ring of white or yellow.[10] The shape and colour of the patch also varied, although the colour was usually white or yellow. Married women were often required to wear two bands of blue on their veil or head-scarf.[11]
Each Jew, after he is seven years old, shall wear a distinguishing mark on his outer garment, that is to say, in the form of
two Tables joined, of yellow felt of the length of six inches and of the breadth of three inches.[12][13]
In Europe, Jews were required to wear the Judenhut or pileum cornutum, a cone-shaped hat, in most cases yellow.[14] In 1267, the
Vienna city council ordered Jews to wear this type of hat rather than a badge.[5] There is a reference to a dispensation from the badge in
Erfurt on 16 October 1294, the earliest reference to the badge in Germany.[5] There were also attempts to enforce the wearing of full-length robes, which in late 14th-century
Rome were supposed to be red. In Portugal, a red
Star of David was used.[11]
Enforcement of the rules was variable; in
Marseille the magistrates ignored accusations of breaches, and in some places individuals or communities could buy exemption.
Cathars who were considered "first time offenders" by the
Catholic Church and the
Inquisition were also forced to wear yellow badges, albeit in the form of crosses, about their person.
The yellow badge remained the key distinguishing mark of Jewish dress in the Middle Ages.[15] From the 16th century, the use of the Judenhut declined, but the badge tended to outlast it, surviving into the 18th century in places.[16]
Axis powers
After
Nazi Germany's
invasion of Poland in 1939, there were different local decrees requiring Jews to wear a distinctive sign under the
General Government. The sign was a white armband with a blue Star of David on it; in the
Warthegau a yellow badge in the form of a Star of David on the left side of the breast and on the back.[17] The requirement to wear the Star of David with the word Jude (German for 'Jew') – inscribed in
Faux Hebrew letters
meant to resembleHebrew writing – was then extended to all Jews over the age of six in the Reich and the
Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (by a decree issued on 1 September 1941, signed by
Reinhard Heydrich)[18][19] and was gradually introduced in other
German-occupied areas, where local words were used (e.g. Juif in French, Jood in Dutch).
One observer reported that the star increased German non-Nazi sympathy for Jews as the impoverished citizens who wore them were, contrary to
Nazi propaganda, obviously not the cause of German failure on the
Eastern Front. In the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, government had to ban
hat tipping towards Jews and other courtesies that became popular as protests against
the German occupation. A
whispering campaign that claimed that the action was in response to the United States government requiring
German Americans to wear swastikas was unsuccessful.[20]
Post–World War II
In May 2001, the
Taliban government in Afghanistan ruled that
Hindus in the country must wear a yellow badge, causing international outcry.[21][22]
In May 2021, in response to the
anti-vaccine movement in the United States, hatWRKS, a hat store in
Nashville, Tennessee, sold badges that resembled the yellow stars with the words "Not vaccinated" on them. In response, the
Stetson company announced they would no longer sell any hats to the store. This also sparked protests outside the store.[23] The practice of wearing yellow stars in
protests against responses to the COVID-19 pandemic spread to Montreal, London, Amsterdam and Paris. The practice sparked condemnation by various Jewish advocacy groups and
Holocaust survivors.[24][25][26][27]
On 31 October 2023,
Permanent Representative of Israel to the United NationsGilad Erdan, as well as other
Israeli delegates, began wearing yellow star badges with the words "
Never Again" written on them, in protest to criticism of Israel's conduct during the
2023 Israel–Hamas war. Erdan claimed that the
UN Security Council was "silent" about the
7 October Hamas attack on Israel, and said that he would wear the star "as a symbol of pride".[28] However, this decision was immediately condemned by
Yad Vashem chairman
Dani Dayan, calling it a "[disgrace to] the victims of the Holocaust as well as the state of Israel", pointing out that the slaughter of Jews by Hamas differs from the Holocaust in that "Jews have today a state and an army. We are not defenseless and at the mercy of others."[29][30] According to
Ynet, unnamed officials from Israel's
Ministry of Foreign Affairs were also highly critical of the decision, with one calling it a "cheap gimmick that doesn’t serve our goal", and others describing it as an attempt to appeal to
Likud party members.[31]
Timeline
Caliphates
717–720
Caliph
Umar II orders non-Muslims (
dhimmi) to wear vestimentary distinctions (called giyār, i.e. distinguishing marks).[32]
847–861
Caliph
al-Mutawakkil reinforces and reissues the edict. Christians are required to wear patches. One of the patches was to be worn in front of the breast and the other on the back. They were required to be honey-coloured.[2]
887/888
The
Aghlabid governor of the
Emirate of Sicily orders Jews to wear on their garments and put on their doors a piece of cloth in the form of donkey and to wear yellow belts and special hats.[citation needed]
Medieval and early modern Europe
1215
The
Fourth Council of the Lateran headed by
Pope Innocent III declares: "Jews and
Saracens of both sexes in every Christian province and at all times shall be marked off in the eyes of the public from other peoples through the character of their dress."[33]
1219
Pope Honorius III issues a dispensation to the Jews of
Castile.[5] Spanish Jews normally wore
turbans in any case, which presumably met the requirement to be distinctive.[6]
The Synod of
Narbonne rules: "That Jews may be distinguished from others, we decree and emphatically command that in the center of the breast (of their garments) they shall wear an oval badge, the measure of one finger in width and one half a palm in height."[33]
The Siete Partidas, a legal code enacted in Castile by
Alfonso X but not implemented until many years later, includes a requirement for Jews to wear distinguishing marks.[8]
1267
In a special session, the
Vienna city council forces Jews to wear pileum cornutum (a cone-shaped head dress, common in medieval illustrations of Jews); a badge does not seem to have been worn in Austria.[5]
1269
France. (Saint)
Louis IX of France orders all Jews found in public without a badge (
French: rouelle or roue,
Latin: rota) to be fined ten livres of silver.[9] The enforcement of wearing the badge is repeated by local councils, with varying degrees of fines, at
Arles 1234 and 1260,
Béziers 1246,
Albi 1254,
Nîmes 1284 and 1365,
Avignon 1326 and 1337,
Rodez 1336, and
Vanves 1368.[5]
1274
The
Statute of Jewry in England, enacted by King
Edward I, enforces the regulations. "Each Jew, after he is seven years old, shall wear a distinguishing mark on his outer garment, that is to say, in the form of two Tables joined, of yellow felt of the length of six inches and of the breadth of three inches."[13]
1294
Erfurt. The earliest mention of the badge in Germany.[5]
The
Council of Ten of
Venice allows the newly arrived famous physician and professor
Jacob Mantino ben Samuel to wear the regular black doctors' cap instead of Jewish yellow hat for several months (subsequently made permanent), upon the recommendation of the French and English ambassadors, the
papal legate, and other dignitaries numbered among his patients.[34]
King
Sigismund II passes a law that required
Lithuanian Jews to wear yellow hats and head coverings. The law was abolished twenty years later.[5]
1710
Frederick William I abolished the mandatory Jewish yellow patch in
Prussia in return for a payment of 8,000
thaler (about $75,000 worth of silver at 2007 prices) each.[35]
Axis powers
1939
Local German occupation commanders ordered Jewish Poles to wear an identifying mark under the threat of death. There were no consistent requirements as to its colour and shape: it varies from a white armband, a yellow hat to a yellow Star of David badge.
Hans Frank ordered all Jewish Poles over the age of 11 years in
German-occupied Poland to wear white armbands with a blue Star of David.
1940
A popular legend portrays king
Christian X of Denmark wearing the yellow badge on his daily morning horseback ride through the streets of
Copenhagen, followed by non-Jewish Danes responding to their king's example, thus preventing the Germans from identifying Jewish citizens. Queen
Margrethe II of Denmark has explained that the story was not true.[36][37] No order requiring Jews to wear identifying marks was ever introduced in Denmark.[38]
1941
Jews in the
Independent State of Croatia, a puppet state of Nazi Germany, are ordered to wear "Jewish insignia".[39] Jewish Poles in German-occupied
Soviet-annexed Poland, Jewish Lithuanians, Latvians and Estonians as well as Soviet Jews in German-occupied areas were obliged to wear white armbands or yellow badges. All Romanian Jews were ordered to wear the yellow badge.[40] The yellow badge was the only standardised identifying mark in the German-occupied East; other signs were forbidden. Jewish Germans and Jews with citizenship of annexed states (Austrians, Czechs, Danzigers) from the age of six years were ordered to wear the yellow badge from 19 September when in public.[18] In Luxembourg, the German occupation authorities introduce the
Nuremberg Laws, followed by several other anti-Jewish ordinances including an order for all Jews to wear a yellow star with the word "Jude".[41] The
Slovak Republic ordered its Jews to wear yellow badges.
1941/1942
Romania started to force Jews in newly annexed territories, denied Romanian citizenship, to wear the yellow badge.
1942
The
Gestapo ordered Jewish Germans and Jews with citizenship of annexed states to mark their apartments or houses at the front door with a white badge.[42] Jewish Dutch people ordered to wear the yellow badge. Jewish Belgians ordered to wear the yellow badge. Jews in
occupied France, covering the northern and western half of the country, were ordered to wear a yellow star by the German authorities. Bulgaria ordered its Jewish citizens to wear small yellow buttons. German forces invaded and occupied the zone libre, i.e. the south-eastern half of France, but did not enforce the yellow star directive there.
1944
After the occupation of
Hungary, the Nazi occupiers ordered Jewish Hungarians and Jews with defunct other citizenships (Czechoslovak, Romanian, Yugoslav) in Hungarian-annexed areas to wear the yellow badge.[43]
^
abBell, Dean Phillip (2005).
"Yellow Badge". In
Levy, Richard S. (ed.). Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio. p. 779.
ISBN1-85109-439-3.
^Schreckenberg 1996, p. 15, although
Piponnier & Mane 1997, p. 137, say red was commonest for badges of all shapes, followed by yellow or green, or red and white together.
^Schreckenberg 1996, p. 15, although The Jewish Encyclopedia cites a reference from 1208 in France. See The Jewish Encyclopedia for the Judenhut being more widespread than the badge.
^Benz, Wolfgang, ed. (1988). Die Juden in Deutschland, 1933–1945: Leben unter nationalsozialistischer Herrschaft (in German). Munich: C. H. Beck. pp. 618seq.
ISBN3-406-33324-9.