A ghazi (
Arabic: غازي, Arabic pronunciation:[ɣaːziː], plural ġuzāt) is an individual who participated in ghazw (غزو, ġazw), meaning military expeditions or raiding. The latter term was applied in early Islamic literature to expeditions led by the Islamic prophet
Muhammad, and later taken up by Turkic military leaders to describe their wars of conquest.[1]
In the context of the wars between Russia and the Muslim peoples of the
Caucasus, starting as early as the late 18th century's
Sheikh Mansur's resistance to Russian expansion, the word usually appears in the form gazavat (газават).[2]
In English-language literature, the ghazw often appears as razzia, a borrowing through French from
Maghrebi Arabic.
In pre-Islamic
Bedouin culture, ghazw[a] was a form of limited warfare verging on
brigandage that avoided head-on confrontations and instead emphasized raiding and looting, usually of livestock (see
cattle raiding). The
Umayyad-period Bedouin poet
al-Kutami wrote the oft-quoted verses: "Our business is to make raids on the enemy, on our neighbor and our own brother, in the event we find none to raid but a brother."[5][6]William Montgomery Watt hypothesized that
Muhammad found it useful to divert this continuous internecine warfare toward his enemies, making it the basis of his war strategy;[7] according to Watt, the celebrated
battle of Badr started as one such
razzia.[8] As a form of warfare, the razzia was then mimicked by the Christian states of
Iberia in their relations with the
taifa states;[9] rough synonyms and similar tactics are the Iberian cavalgada and the Anglo-French chevauchée.[10]
The word razzia was used in French colonial context particularly for raids to plunder and capture slaves from among the people of
Western and
Central Africa, also known as rezzou when practiced by the
Tuareg. The word was adopted from ġaziya of
Algerian Arabic vernacular and later became a figurative name for any act of pillage, with its verb form razzier.[11]
Ghazi (
Arabic: غازي, ġāzī) is an
Arabic word, the
active participle of the verb ġazā, meaning 'to carry out a military expedition or raid'; the same verb can also mean 'to strive for' and Ghazi can thus share a similar meaning to
Mujahid or "one who struggles". The
verbal noun of ġazā is ġazw or ġazawān, with the meaning 'raiding'. A derived
singulative in ġazwah refers to a single battle or raid. The term ghāzī dates to at least the
Samanid period, where he appears as a
mercenary and frontier fighter in
Khorasan and
Transoxiana. Later, up to 20,000 of them took part in the Indian campaigns of
Mahmud of Ghazni.
Ghāzī warriors depended upon plunder for their livelihood, and were prone to
brigandage and
sedition in times of peace. The corporations into which they organized themselves attracted adventurers,
zealots and religious and political dissidents of all ethnicities. In time, though, soldiers of
Turkic ethnicity predominated, mirroring the acquisition of Mamluks, Turkic slaves in the Mamluk retinues and guard corps of the caliphs and emirs and in the ranks of the ghazi corporation, some of whom would ultimately rise to military and later political dominance in various Muslim states.
In the west, Turkic ghāzīs made continual incursions along the
Byzantine frontier zone, finding in the
akritai (
akritoi) their Greek counterparts. After the
Battle of Manzikert these incursions intensified, and the region's people would see the ghāzī corporations coalesce into semi-
chivalric fraternities, with the white cap and the
club as their emblems. The height of the organizations would come during the Mongol conquest when many of them fled from Persia and Turkistan into Anatolia.
As organizations, the ghazi corporations were fluid, reflecting their popular character, and individual ghāzī warriors would jump between them depending upon the prestige and success of a particular
emir, rather like the mercenary bands around western
condottiere. It was from these
Anatolian territories conquered during the ghazw that the Ottoman Empire emerged, and in its legendary traditions it is said that its founder,
Osman I, came forward as a ghāzī thanks to the inspiration of
Shaikh Ede Bali.
In later periods of Islamic history the honorific title of ghāzī was assumed by those Muslim rulers who showed conspicuous success in extending the domains of Islam, and eventually the honorific became exclusive to them, much as the Roman title
imperator became the exclusive property of the supreme ruler of the Roman state and his family.
The
Ottomans were probably the first to adopt this practice, and in any case the institution of ghazw reaches back to the beginnings of their state:
By early Ottoman times it had become a title of honor and a claim to leadership. In an inscription of 1337 [concerning the building of the
Bursa mosque],
Orhan, second ruler of the Ottoman line, describes himself as "Sultan, son of the Sultan of the Gazis, Gazi son of Gazi… frontier lord of the horizons."
Ottoman historian Ahmedi in his work explain the meaning of Ghazi:[13]
A Ghazi is the instrument of the religion of Allah, a servant of God who purifies the earth from the filth of polytheism. The Ghazi is the sword of God, he is the protector and the refuge of the believers. If he becomes a martyr in the ways of God, do not believe that he has died, he lives in beatitude with Allah, he has eternal life.
The first nine Ottoman chiefs all used Ghazi as part of their full throne name (as with many other titles, the nomination was added even though it did not fit the office), and often afterwards. However, it never became a formal title within the ruler's formal style, unlike Sultan ul-Mujahidin, used by Sultan Murad Khan II Khoja-Ghazi, 6th Sovereign of the House of Osman (1421–1451), styled 'Abu'l Hayrat, Sultan ul-Mujahidin, Khan of Khans, Grand Sultan of Anatolia and Rumelia, and of the Cities of Adrianople and Philippolis.
Because of the political legitimacy that would accrue to those bearing this title, Muslim rulers vied amongst themselves for preeminence in the ghāziya, with the Ottoman Sultans generally acknowledged as excelling all others in this feat:
For political reasons the Ottoman Sultans — also being the last dynasty of
Caliphs — attached the greatest importance to safeguarding and strengthening the reputation which they enjoyed as ghāzīs in the Muslim world. When they won victories in the ghazā in the Balkans they used to send accounts of them (singular, feth-nāme) as well as slaves and booty to eastern Muslim potentates. Christian knights captured by
Bāyezīd I at his victory over the Crusaders at
Nicopolis in 1396, and sent to Cairo, Baghdad and Tabriz were paraded through the streets, and occasioned great demonstrations in favour of the Ottomans. (Cambridge History of Islam, p. 290)
Ghazi was also used as a title of honor in the Ottoman Empire, generally translated as the Victorious, for military officers of high rank, who distinguished themselves in the field against non-Moslem enemies; thus it was conferred on
Osman Pasha after his famous
defence of
Plevna in Bulgaria[14] and on
Mustafa Kemal Pasha (later known as Atatürk) for leading the victory in the
Battle of the Sakarya.[15]
Some Muslim rulers (in Afghanistan) personally used the subsidiary style
Padshah-i-Ghazi.
Ghazwah, which literally means "campaigns", is typically used by biographers to refer to all the Prophet's journeys from Medina, whether to make peace treaties and preach Islam to the tribes, to go on ʽumrah, to pursue enemies who attacked Medina, or to engage in the nine battles.[16]
Muhammad participated in 27 Ghazwa. The first Ghazwa he participated in was the
Invasion of Waddan in August 623,[17][18] he ordered his followers to attack a Quraysh caravan.[17]
Operationally
When performed within the context of Islamic warfare, the ghazw's function was to weaken the enemy's defenses in preparation for his eventual conquest and subjugation. Because the typical ghazw raiding party often did not have the size or strength to seize military or territorial objectives, this usually meant sudden attacks on weakly defended targets (e.g. villages) with the intent of demoralizing the enemy and destroying material which could support their military forces. Though Islam's rules of warfare offered protection to non-combatants such as women,
monastics and
peasants in that they could not be slain, their property could still be looted or destroyed, and they themselves could be abducted and enslaved (Cambridge History of Islam, p. 269):
The only way of avoiding the onslaughts of the ghāzīs was to become subjects of the Islamic state. Non-Muslims acquired the status of dhimmīs, living under its protection. Most Christian sources confuse these two stages in the Ottoman conquests. The Ottomans, however, were careful to abide by these rules... Faced with the terrifying onslaught of the ghāzīs, the population living outside the confines of the
empire, in the '
abode of war', often renounced the ineffective protection of Christian states, and sought refuge in subjection to the Ottoman Empire. Peasants in open country in particular lost nothing by this change.
Cambridge History of Islam, p. 285
A good source on the conduct of the traditional ghazw raid are the medieval Islamic jurists, whose discussions as to which conduct is allowed and which is forbidden in the course of warfare reveal some of the practices of this institution. One such source is
Averroes' Bidāyat al-Mujtahid wa-Nihāyat al-Muqtasid (translated in Peters, Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam: A Reader, Chapter 4).
In the 19th century, Muslim fighters in
North Caucasus who were resisting the Russian military operations declared a gazawat (understood as holy war) against the Russian Orthodox invasion. Although it is not known for certain, it is believed that
Dagestani Islamic scholar
Muhammad al-Yaraghi was the ideologist of this holy war. In 1825, a congress of
ulema in the village of
Yarag declared gazawat against the Russians. Its first leader was
Ghazi Muhammad; after his death,
Imam Shamil would eventually continue it.[19]
^Aboul-Enein, H. Yousuf and Zuhur, Sherifa, "
Islamic Rulings on Warfare", Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College, Diane Publishing Co., Darby PA,
ISBN1-4289-1039-5 pg. 6.
^William Montgomery Watt (1978).
"Muhammad". In Ann Katherine Swynford Lambton; Bernard Lewis (eds.). The central islamic lands from pre-islamic times to the first world war. Cambridge University Press. p. 45.
ISBN978-0-521-29135-4.
^Paul Wittek, (2013), The Rise of the Ottoman Empire: Studies in the History of Turkey, thirteenth–fifteenth Centuries Royal Asiatic Society Books, p. 44
^Tabari, Al (2008),
The foundation of the community, State University of New York Press, p. 12,
ISBN978-0887063442, In Safar (which began August 4, 623), nearly twelve months after his arrival in Medina on the twelfth of Rabi' al- Awwal, he went out on a raid as far as Waddan
Mohammed Bamyeh (2006). "The Nomands of Pre-Islamic Arabia". In
Dawn Chatty (ed.). Nomadic societies in the Middle East and North Africa: entering the 21st century. BRILL. pp. 33–49.
ISBN978-90-04-14792-8.