For most of its history, China was organized into various
dynastic states under the rule of
hereditary monarchs. Beginning with the establishment of dynastic rule by
Yu the Great
c. 2070 BC, and ending with the
abdication of the
Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912,
Chinese historiography came to organize itself around the succession of monarchical dynasties.[a][b] Besides those established by the dominant
Han ethnic group or its spiritual
Huaxia predecessors, dynasties throughout Chinese history were also founded by non-Han peoples.[6]
Dividing Chinese history into dynastic epochs is a convenient and conventional method of
periodization.[7] Accordingly, a dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned, as well as to describe events, trends, personalities, artistic compositions, and artifacts of that period.[8] For example, porcelain made during the
Ming dynasty may be referred to as "Ming porcelain".[9]
The longest-reigning orthodox dynasty of China was the
Zhou dynasty, ruling for a total length of about 790 years, albeit it is divided into the
Western Zhou and the
Eastern Zhou in Chinese historiography.[10] The largest orthodox Chinese dynasty in terms of territorial size was either the
Yuan dynasty or the
Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.[11][12][13][14][15][c]
The term "Tiāncháo" (天朝; "Celestial Dynasty" or "Heavenly Dynasty") was frequently employed as a self-reference by Chinese dynasties.[19][20] As a form of respect and subordination,
Chinese tributary states referred to these dynasties as "Tiāncháo Shàngguó" (天朝上國; "Celestial Dynasty of the Exalted State") or "Tiāncháo Dàguó" (天朝大國; "Celestial Dynasty of the Great State").
Terminology
The Chinese character 朝 (cháo) originally meant "morning" or "today". Subsequently, its scope was extended to refer to the regime of the incumbent ruler. Terms commonly used when discussing historical Chinese dynasties include:
As the founder of China's first orthodox dynasty, the
Xia dynasty,
Yu the Great is conventionally regarded as the inaugurator of dynastic rule in China.[22][a] In the Chinese dynastic system, sovereign rulers theoretically possessed
absolute power and private ownership of the realm, even though in practice their actual power was dependent on numerous factors.[23][e] By tradition, the
Chinese throne was inherited exclusively by members of the male line, but there were numerous cases whereby the
consort kins came to possess de facto power at the expense of the monarchs.[27][f] This concept, known as jiā
tiānxià (家天下; "All under Heaven belongs to the ruling family"), was in contrast to the
pre-Xia notion of gōng tiānxià (公天下; "All under Heaven belongs to the public") whereby leadership succession was non-hereditary and based on the
abdication system.[23][29]
Dynastic transition
The rise and fall of dynasties is a prominent feature of Chinese history. Some scholars have attempted to explain this phenomenon by attributing the success and failure of dynasties to the morality of the rulers, while others have focused on the tangible aspects of monarchical rule.[30] This method of explanation has come to be known as the
dynastic cycle.[30][31][32]
Cases of dynastic transition (改朝換代; gǎi cháo huàn dài) in the history of China occurred primarily through two ways: military conquest and usurpation.[33] The supersession of the
Liao dynasty by the
Jin dynasty was achieved following a series of successful military campaigns, as was the later unification of
China proper under the
Yuan dynasty; on the other hand, the transition from the
Eastern Han to the
Cao Wei, as well as from the
Southern Qi to the
Liang dynasty, were cases of usurpation. Oftentimes,
usurpers would seek to portray their predecessors as having relinquished the throne willingly—akin to the abdication system of throne succession—as a means to legitimize their rule.[34]
One might incorrectly infer from viewing
historical timelines that transitions between dynasties occurred abruptly and roughly. Rather, new dynasties were often established before the complete overthrow of an existing regime.[35] For example, AD 1644 is frequently cited as the year in which the
Qing dynasty succeeded the
Ming dynasty in possessing the
Mandate of Heaven. However, the Qing dynasty was officially proclaimed in AD 1636 by the
Emperor Taizong of Qing through renaming the
Later Jin established in AD 1616, while the
Ming imperial family would rule the
Southern Ming until AD 1662.[36][37] The Ming loyalist
Kingdom of Tungning based in Taiwan continued to oppose the Qing until AD 1683.[38] Meanwhile, other factions also fought for control over China during the
Ming–Qing transition, most notably the
Shun and the
Xi dynasties proclaimed by
Li Zicheng and
Zhang Xianzhong respectively.[39][40][41] This change of ruling houses was a convoluted and prolonged affair, and the Qing took almost two decades to extend their rule over the entirety of China proper.
Similarly, during the earlier
Sui–Tang transition, numerous regimes established by rebel forces vied for control and legitimacy as the power of the ruling
Sui dynasty weakened. Autonomous regimes that existed during this period of upheaval included, but not limited to, Wei (魏; by
Li Mi), Qin (秦; by
Xue Ju), Qi (齊; by Gao Tancheng), Xu (許; by
Yuwen Huaji), Liang (梁; by
Shen Faxing), Liang (梁; by
Liang Shidu), Xia (夏; by
Dou Jiande), Zheng (鄭; by
Wang Shichong), Chu (楚; by
Zhu Can), Chu (楚; by
Lin Shihong), Wu (吳; by
Li Zitong), Yan (燕; by
Gao Kaidao), and Song (宋; by
Fu Gongshi). The
Tang dynasty that superseded the Sui launched a decade-long military campaign to reunify China proper.[42]
Frequently, remnants and descendants of previous dynasties were either purged or granted
noble titles in accordance with the "
two crownings, three respects" system. The latter served as a means for the reigning dynasty to claim legitimate succession from earlier dynasties. For example, the
Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei was accorded the title "Prince of Zhongshan" by the
Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi following the latter's deposition of the former.[43] Similarly, Chai Yong, a nephew of the
Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, was conferred the title "Duke of Chongyi" by the
Emperor Renzong of Song; other descendants of the
Later Zhou ruling house came to inherit the noble title thereafter.[44]
Dynastic rule in China collapsed in AD 1912 when the Republic of China superseded the
Qing dynasty following the success of the Xinhai Revolution.[47][48] While there were attempts after the Xinhai Revolution to reinstate dynastic rule in China, they were unsuccessful at consolidating their rule and gaining political legitimacy.
During the Xinhai Revolution, there were numerous proposals advocating for the replacement of the
Manchu-led Qing dynasty by a new dynasty of Han ethnicity. Kong Lingyi (孔令貽), the
Duke of Yansheng and a 76th-generation descendant of
Confucius, was identified as a potential candidate for Chinese emperorship by
Liang Qichao.[49] Meanwhile, gentry in
Anhui and
Hebei supported a restoration of the
Ming dynasty under Zhu Yuxun (朱煜勳), the
Marquis of Extended Grace.[50] Both suggestions were ultimately rejected.
The
Empire of China (AD 1915–1916) proclaimed by
Yuan Shikai sparked the
National Protection War, resulting in the premature collapse of the regime 101 days later.[51] The
Manchu Restoration (AD 1917) was an unsuccessful attempt at reviving the Qing dynasty, lasting merely 11 days.[52] Similarly, the
Manchukuo (AD 1932–1945; monarchy since AD 1934), a puppet state of the
Empire of Japan during
World War II with limited diplomatic recognition, is not regarded as a legitimate regime.[53] Ergo, historians usually consider the abdication of the
Xuantong Emperor on 12 February 1912 as the end of the Chinese dynastic system. Dynastic rule in China lasted almost four millennia.[47]
Political legitimacy
China was politically divided during multiple periods in its history, with different regions ruled by different dynasties. These dynasties effectively functioned as separate states with their own
court and political institutions. Political division existed during the
Three Kingdoms, the
Sixteen Kingdoms, the
Northern and Southern dynasties, and the
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods, among others.
Relations between Chinese dynasties during periods of division often revolved around
political legitimacy, which was derived from the doctrine of the
Mandate of Heaven.[54] Dynasties ruled by ethnic Han would proclaim rival dynasties founded by other ethnicities as illegitimate, usually justified based on the concept of
Hua–Yi distinction. On the other hand, many dynasties of non-Han origin saw themselves as the legitimate dynasty of China and often sought to portray themselves as the true inheritor of
Chinese culture and history. Traditionally, only regimes deemed as "legitimate" or "orthodox" (正統; zhèngtǒng) are termed cháo (朝; "dynasty"); "illegitimate" or "unorthodox" regimes are referred to as guó (國; usually translated as either "state" or "kingdom"[g]), even if these regimes were dynastic in nature.[55]
Such legitimacy disputes existed during the following periods:
The
Western Jin accepted the Cao Wei as the legitimate dynasty of the Three Kingdoms period and claimed succession from it.
The
Tang dynasty viewed the Cao Wei as the legitimate dynasty during this period, whereas the
Southern Song scholar
Zhu Xi proposed treating the Shu Han as legitimate.[57][58]
All dynasties during this period saw themselves as the legitimate representative of China; the
Northern dynasties referred to their southern counterparts as "dǎoyí" (島夷; "island dwelling barbarians"), while the
Southern dynasties called their northern neighbors "suǒlǔ" (索虜; "barbarians with braids").[61][62]
The Ming dynasty recognized the preceding Yuan dynasty as a legitimate Chinese dynasty, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Yuan, thus considering the Northern Yuan as illegitimate.
Northern Yuan rulers maintained the dynastic name "Great Yuan" and claimed traditional Han-style titles continuously until AD 1388 or AD 1402; Han-style titles were restored on several occasions thereafter for brief periods, notably during the reigns of
Taisun Khan,
Choros Esen, and
Dayan Khan.[71]
The historian Rashipunsug argued that the Northern Yuan had succeeded the legitimacy from the Yuan dynasty; the
Qing dynasty, which later defeated and annexed the Northern Yuan, inherited this legitimacy, thus rendering the Ming illegitimate.[72]
The Qing dynasty recognized the preceding Ming dynasty as legitimate, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Ming, thus refuting the claimed legitimacy of the Southern Ming.
The Southern Ming continued to claim legitimacy until its eventual defeat by the Qing.
The Ming loyalist
Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan denounced the Qing dynasty as illegitimate.
The
Joseon dynasty of Korea and the
Later Lê dynasty of Vietnam had at various times considered the Southern Ming, instead of the Qing dynasty, as legitimate.[74][75]
The
Tokugawa shogunate of Japan did not accept the legitimacy of the Qing dynasty and instead saw itself as the rightful representative of Huá (華; "China"); this narrative served as the basis of Japanese texts such as Chūchō Jijitsu and Kai Hentai.[76][77][78]
Traditionally, periods of disunity often resulted in heated debates among officials and historians over which prior dynasties could and should be considered orthodox, given that it was politically imperative for a dynasty to present itself as being linked in an unbroken lineage of moral and political authority back to ancient times. However, the Northern Song statesman
Ouyang Xiu propounded that such orthodoxy existed in a state of limbo during fragmented periods and was restored after political unification was achieved.[79] From this perspective, the Song dynasty possessed legitimacy by virtue of its ability to end the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period despite not having succeeded the orthodoxy from the
Later Zhou. Similarly, Ouyang considered the concept of orthodoxy to be in oblivion during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern dynasties periods.[79]
Traditionally, as most Chinese historiographical sources uphold the idea of unilineal dynastic succession, only one dynasty could be considered orthodox at any given time.[64] Most historical sources consider the legitimate line of succession to be as follows:[64]
These historical legitimacy disputes are similar to the modern competing claims of legitimacy by the People's Republic of China based in
Beijing and the Republic of China based in
Taipei. Both regimes formally adhere to the
One-China principle and claim to be the
sole legitimate representative of the whole of China.[80]
Agnatic lineages
The
Emperor Guangwu of Han (top) and the
Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han (bottom) were descended from a common paternal ancestor but are typically considered by historians to be the founders of two separate dynasties.
There were several groups of Chinese dynasties that were ruled by families with
patrilineal relations, yet due to various reasons these regimes are considered to be separate dynasties and given distinct retroactive names for historiographical purpose. Such conditions as differences in their official dynastic title and fundamental changes having occurred to their rule would necessitate nomenclatural distinction in academia, despite these ruling clans having shared common ancestral origins.
Additionally, numerous other dynasties claimed descent from earlier dynasties as a calculated political move to obtain or enhance their legitimacy, even if such claims were unfounded.
The agnatic relations of the following groups of Chinese dynasties are typically recognized by historians:
The Western Han, the Eastern Han, the Shu Han, and the Liu Song were ruled by the House of Liu; the first two of which are collectively known as the
Han dynasty[82]
The first emperor of the Eastern Han, the
Emperor Guangwu of Han, was a ninth-generation descendant of the Western Han founder, the
Emperor Gao of Han; he was also a seventh-generation descendant of the sixth Western Han monarch, the
Emperor Jing of Han
The founder of the Shu Han, the
Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han, was also descended from the Emperor Jing of Han
The Northern Wei, the Southern Liang, the Eastern Wei, and the Western Wei were ruled by the
House of Tuoba (later renamed the House of Yuan and the House of Tufa respectively)
The Southern Qi and the Liang dynasty were ruled by the House of Xiao
The founder of the Liang dynasty, the
Emperor Wu of Liang, was a son of the Emperor Wen of Liang who was a distant cousin of the Southern Qi founder, the
Emperor Gao of Southern Qi
The
Emperor Taizong of Qing was both the last Later Jin khan and the first emperor of the Qing dynasty
Classification
Central Plain dynasties
The
Central Plain is a vast area on the lower reaches of the
Yellow River which formed the cradle of Chinese civilization. "Central Plain dynasties" (中原王朝; Zhōngyuán wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China that had their
capital cities situated within the Central Plain.[86] This term could refer to dynasties of both Han and non-Han ethnic origins.[86]
Unified dynasties
"Unified dynasties" (大一統王朝; dàyītǒng wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China, regardless of their ethnic origin, that achieved the unification of China proper. "China proper" is a region generally regarded as the traditional heartland of the Han people, and is not equivalent to the term "China". Imperial dynasties that had attained the unification of China proper may be known as the "Chinese Empire" or the "Empire of China" (中華帝國; Zhōnghuá Dìguó).[87][88][h]
The concept of "great unity" or "grand unification" (大一統; dàyītǒng) was first mentioned in the Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals that was supposedly authored by the
Qi scholar Gongyang Gao.[89][90][91] Other prominent figures like Confucius and
Mencius also elaborated on this concept in their respective works.[92][93]
According to the historian and sinologist
Karl August Wittfogel, dynasties of China founded by non-Han peoples that ruled parts or all of China proper could be classified into two types, depending on the means by which the ruling ethnic groups had entered China proper.[97]
"Infiltration dynasties" or "dynasties of infiltration" (滲透王朝; shèntòu wángcháo) refer to Chinese dynasties founded by non-Han ethnicities that tended towards accepting Han culture and assimilating into the Han-dominant society.[97] For instance, the
Han-Zhao and the
Northern Wei, established by the
Xiongnu and
Xianbei ethnicities respectively, are considered infiltration dynasties of China.[97]
"Conquest dynasties" or "dynasties of conquest" (征服王朝; zhēngfú wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China established by non-Han peoples that tended towards resisting Han culture and preserving the identities of the ruling ethnicities.[97][98] For example, the
Liao dynasty and the
Yuan dynasty, ruled by the
Khitan and
Mongol peoples respectively, are considered conquest dynasties of China.[97]
These terms remain sources of controversy among scholars who believe that Chinese history should be analyzed and understood from a multiethnic and multicultural perspective.[99]
Naming convention
Official nomenclature
It was customary for Chinese monarchs to adopt an official name for the realm, known as the guóhào (國號; "name of the state"), upon the establishment of a dynasty.[100][101] During the rule of a dynasty, its guóhào functioned as the formal name of the state, both internally and for diplomatic purposes.
The formal name of Chinese dynasties was usually derived from one of the following sources:
The name of the ruling tribe or tribal confederation[102][103]
e.g., the
Xia dynasty took its name from its ruling class, the Xia tribal confederation[102]
The noble title held by the dynastic founder prior to the founding of the dynasty[102][103]
e.g., the
Emperor Wu of Chen adopted the dynastic name "Chen" from his pre-imperial title "Prince of Chen" upon the establishment of the
Chen dynasty[104]
The name of a historical state that occupied the same geographical location as the new dynasty[103][105]
e.g., the
Former Yan was officially named "Yan" based on the ancient
State of Yan located in the same region[105]
The name of a previous dynasty from which the new dynasty claimed descent or succession from, even if such familial link was questionable[103]
A term with auspicious or other significant connotations[102][103]
e.g., the
Yuan dynasty was officially the "Great Yuan", a name derived from a clause in the Classic of Changes, "dà zāi Qián Yuán" (大哉乾元; "Great is the Heavenly and Primal")[107]
There were instances whereby the official name was changed during the reign of a dynasty. For example, the dynasty known retroactively as
Southern Han initially used the name "Yue", only to be renamed to "Han" subsequently.[108]
The official title of several dynasties bore the character "dà" (大; "great"). In Yongzhuang Xiaopin by the
Ming historian
Zhu Guozhen, it was claimed that the first dynasty to do so was the Yuan dynasty.[109][110] However, several sources like the History of Liao and the History of Jin compiled by the Yuan historian
Toqto'a revealed that the official dynastic name of some earlier dynasties such as the
Liao and the
Jin also contained the character "dà".[111][112] It was also common for officials, subjects, or tributary states of a particular dynasty to include the term "dà" (or an equivalent term in other languages) when referring to this dynasty as a form of respect, even if the official dynastic name did not include it.[110] For instance, The Chronicles of Japan referred to the
Tang dynasty as "Dai Tō" (大唐; "Great Tang") despite its dynastic name being simply "Tang".
While all dynasties of China sought to associate their respective realm with Zhōngguó (中國; "Central State"; usually translated as "Middle Kingdom" or "China" in English texts) and various other
names of China, none of these regimes officially used such names as their dynastic title.[113][114] Although the
Qing dynasty explicitly identified their state with and employed "Zhōngguó"—and its
Manchu equivalent "Dulimbai Gurun" (ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ)—in official capacity in numerous international treaties beginning with the
Treaty of Nerchinsk dated AD 1689, its dynastic name had remained the "Great Qing".[115][116] "Zhōngguó", which has become nearly synonymous with "China" in modern times, is a concept with geographical, political, and cultural connotations.[117]
The adoption of guóhào, as well as the importance assigned to it, had promulgated within the
Sinosphere. Notably, rulers of
Vietnam and Korea also declared guóhào for their respective realm.
Retroactive nomenclature
In Chinese historiography, historians generally do not refer to dynasties directly by their official name. Instead, historiographical names, which were most commonly derived from their official name, are used. For instance, the
Sui dynasty is known as such because its formal name was "Sui". Likewise, the
Jin dynasty was officially the "Great Jin".
When more than one dynasty shared the same
Chinese character(s) as their formal name, as was common in Chinese history, prefixes are retroactively applied to dynastic names by historians in order to distinguish between these similarly-named regimes.[7][35][118] Frequently used prefixes include:
e.g.,
Shu Han (the prefix "Shu" is a reference to the realm's geographical location at
Sichuan),
Hu Xia (the prefix "Hu", meaning "
barbarian", refers to the dynasty's ethnic Xiongnu origin)
A dynasty could be referred to by more than one retroactive name in Chinese historiography, albeit some are more widely used than others. For instance, the
Western Han is also known as the "Former Han", and the
Yang Wu is also called the "Southern Wu".[126][127]
Scholars usually make a historiographical distinction for dynasties whose rule were interrupted. For example, the
Song dynasty is divided into the
Northern Song and the
Southern Song, with the
Jingkang Incident as the dividing line; the original "Song" founded by the
Emperor Taizu of Song was therefore differentiated from the "Song" restored under the
Emperor Gaozong of Song.[128] In such cases, the regime had collapsed, only to be re-established; a nomenclatural distinction between the original regime and the new regime is thus necessary for historiographical purpose. Major exceptions to this historiographical practice include the
Western Qin, the
Southern Liang, and the
Tang dynasty; the first two were interrupted by the
Later Qin, while the continuity of the latter was broken by the
Wu Zhou.[129][130][131]
In Chinese sources, the term "dynasty" (朝; cháo) is usually omitted when referencing dynasties that have prefixes in their historiographical names. Such a practice is sometimes adopted in English usage, even though the inclusion of the word "dynasty" is also widely seen in English scholarly writings. For example, the
Northern Zhou is also sometimes referred to as the "Northern Zhou dynasty".[132]
Often, scholars would refer to a specific Chinese dynasty by attaching the word "China" after the dynastic name. For instance, "Tang China" refers to the Chinese state under the rule of the Tang dynasty and the corresponding historical era.[133]
Territorially, the largest orthodox Chinese dynasty was either the
Yuan dynasty or the
Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.[11][12][13][14][15][c] This discrepancy can be mainly attributed to the ambiguous northern border of the Yuan realm: whereas some sources describe the Yuan border as located to the immediate north of the northern shore of
Lake Baikal, others posit that the Yuan dynasty reached as far north as the
Arctic coast, with its western boundary with the
Golden Horde in Siberia delimited by the
Ob and the
Irtysh.[149][150][151] In contrast, the borders of the Qing dynasty were demarcated and reinforced through a series of international treaties, and thus were more well-defined.
Apart from exerting direct control over the Chinese realm, various dynasties of China also maintained hegemony over other states and tribes through the
Chinese tributary system.[152] The Chinese tributary system first emerged during the
Western Han and lasted until the 19th century AD when the
Sinocentric order broke down.[153][154]
The modern territorial claims of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China are inherited from the lands once held by the Qing dynasty at the time of its collapse.[15][155][156][157][158]
List of major Chinese dynasties
This list includes only the major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. This list is neither comprehensive nor representative of Chinese history as a whole.
Dynasties counted among the "Ten Kingdoms" within the broader "Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms"
Criteria for inclusion This list includes only the major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. Many other dynastic regimes existed within or overlapped with the geographical boundaries specified in the definition of "China" in the study of Chinese historical geography.[cc] These were:[286]
^
abWhile the
Xia dynasty is typically considered to be the first orthodox Chinese dynasty, numerous sources including the Book of Documents mention two other dynasties that preceded the Xia: the "Tang" (唐) and the "
Yu" (虞) dynasties.[1][2][3][4] The former is sometimes called the "Ancient Tang" (古唐) to distinguish it from other dynasties named "Tang".[5] Should the historicity of these earlier dynasties be attested,
Yu the Great would not have been the initiator of dynastic rule in China.
^All attempts at restoring monarchical and dynastic rule in China following the Xinhai Revolution ended in failure. Hence, the abdication of the
Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912 is typically regarded as the formal end of the
Chinese monarchy.
^
abAs per contemporary historiographical norm, the "
Yuan dynasty" in this article refers exclusively to the realm based in
Dadu. However, the Han-style dynastic name "Great Yuan" (大元) as proclaimed by the
Emperor Shizu of Yuan and the claim to Chinese political orthodoxy were meant for the entire
Mongol Empire.[16][17][18] In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is rarely used in the broad sense of the definition by modern-day scholars due to the de factodisintegration of the Mongol Empire.
^While the character 王 (wáng) is translated as "king", this term is often more broadly applied to all dynasties, including those whose rulers held non-royal
titles, such as "
emperor".[21]
^A powerful consort kin, usually a male, could force the reigning monarch to abdicate in his favor, thereby prompting a change in dynasty. For example,
Wang Mang of the
Xin dynasty was a nephew of the
Empress Xiaoyuan who in turn was the spouse of the
Western Han ruler, the
Emperor Yuan of Han.[28]
^The term "kingdom" is potentially misleading as not all rulers held the title of king. For example, all sovereigns of the
Cao Wei held the title huángdì (皇帝; "emperor") during their reign despite the realm being listed as one of the "
Three Kingdoms". Similarly, monarchs of the
Western Qin, one of the "
Sixteen Kingdoms", bore the title wáng (王; usually translated as "prince" in English writings).
^The English and Chinese names stated are historiographical denominations. These should not be confused with the guóhào officially proclaimed by each dynasty. A dynasty may be known by more than one historiographical name.
^
abThe English names shown are based on the Hanyu Pinyin renditions, the most common form of
Mandarin romanization currently in adoption. Some scholarly works utilize the Wade–Giles system, which may differ drastically in the spelling of certain words. For instance, the
Qing dynasty is rendered as "Ch῾ing dynasty" in Wade–Giles.[159]
^
abThe Chinese characters shown are in
Traditional Chinese. Some characters may have
simplified versions that are currently used in mainland China. For instance, the characters for the
Eastern Han are written as "東漢" in Traditional Chinese and "东汉" in Simplified Chinese.
^While Chinese historiography tends to treat dynasties as being of specific ethnic stocks, there were some monarchs who had mixed heritage.[160] For instance, the
Jiaqing Emperor of the Manchu-led
Qing dynasty was of mixed Manchu and Han descent, having derived his Han ancestry from his mother, the
Empress Xiaoyichun.[161]
^The status of a dynasty was dependent upon the supreme title bore by its monarch at any given time. For instance, since all monarchs of the
Chen dynasty held the title of emperor during their reign, the Chen dynasty was of imperial status.
^The monarchs listed were the de facto founders of dynasties. However, it was common for Chinese monarchs to
posthumously honor earlier members of the family as monarchs. For instance, while the
Later Jin was officially established by the
Emperor Gaozu of Later Jin, four earlier members of the ruling house were posthumously accorded imperial titles, the most senior of which was Shi Jing who was conferred the
temple name "Jingzu" (靖祖) and the
posthumous name "Emperor Xiao'an" (孝安皇帝).
^In addition to the ancestral name Si (姒), the ruling house of the
Xia dynasty also bore the lineage name Xiahou (夏后).[162]
^
abYouqiong Yi, surnamed Youqiong (有窮), was of
Dongyi descent.[163] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^
abYun Zhuo, surnamed Yun (妘), was of
Dongyi descent.[164] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^
abThe rule of the
Xia dynasty was traditionally dated 2205–1766 BC as per the calculations made by the historian
Liu Xin.[166][167] Accordingly, the Xia dynasty lasted 439 years.
^
abThe rule of the
Shang dynasty was traditionally dated 1766–1122 BC as per the calculations made by the historian
Liu Xin.[166][169] Accordingly, the Shang dynasty lasted 644 years.
^
abThe rule of the
Western Zhou was traditionally dated 1122–771 BC as per the calculations made by the historian
Liu Xin.[166][169] Accordingly, the Western Zhou lasted 351 years.
^
abcThe terms "Chinese Empire" and "Empire of China" usually refer to the Chinese state under the rule of various imperial dynasties, particularly those that had unified China proper.[87][88]
^In addition to the ancestral name Ying (嬴), the ruling house of the
Qin dynasty also bore the lineage name Zhao (趙).[171]
^
abSome historians consider 206 BC, the year in which the
Emperor Gao of Han was proclaimed "King of Han", to be the start of the
Western Han.[174] Accordingly, the Western Han lasted 215 years.
^Liu Ying was not officially enthroned and maintained the title huáng tàizǐ (皇太子; "crown prince") during the regency of
Wang Mang.[175] The last
Western Han monarch who was officially enthroned was the
Emperor Ping of Han.
^
abcThe names of the
Jin dynasty (晉朝) of the Sima clan and the
Jin dynasty (金朝) of the
Wanyan clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for "Jin".
^
abThe
Sixteen Kingdoms are also referred to as the "Sixteen Kingdoms of the Five Barbarians" (五胡十六國; Wǔ Hú Shíliù Guó), although not all dynasties counted among the 16 were ruled by the "
Five Barbarians".[184]
^The ruling house of the
Han-Zhao initially bore the surname Luandi (攣鞮).[186][187]Liu (劉) was subsequently adopted as the surname prior to the establishment of the Han-Zhao.
^As
Jin Zhun, surnamed Jin (靳), was not a member of the Liu (劉) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[188]
^
abcSome historians consider AD 303, the year in which the
Emperor Jing of Cheng-Han declared the
era name "Jianchu" (建初), to be the start of the
Cheng-Han.[191] Accordingly, the Cheng-Han was founded by the Emperor Jing of Cheng-Han and lasted 44 years.
^The ruling house of the
Former Qin initially bore the surname Pu (蒲).[195] The
Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin subsequently adopted Fu (苻) as the surname in AD 349 prior to the establishment of the Former Qin.[195]
^
abcSome historians consider AD 350, the year in which the
Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin was proclaimed "Prince of Three Qins", to be the start of the
Former Qin.[196] Accordingly, the Former Qin was founded by the Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin and lasted 44 years.
^As
Lan Han, surnamed Lan (蘭), was not a member of the Murong (慕容) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[197]
^
abThe
Emperor Huiyi of Yan was of Gaogouli descent. Originally surnamed Gao (高), he was an adopted member of the Murong (慕容) clan.[198] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^
abDepending on the status of the
Emperor Huiyi of Yan, the
Later Yan ended in either AD 407 or AD 409 and lasted either 23 years or 25 years.
^The
Western Qin was interrupted by the
Later Qin between AD 400 and AD 409. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 400 and the realm restored in AD 409. The
Prince Wuyuan of Western Qin was both the last ruler before the interregnum and the first ruler after the interregnum.
^
abThe names of the
Later Liang (後涼) of the Lü clan and the
Later Liang (後梁) of the Zhu clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for "Liang".
^The ruling house of the
Southern Liang initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋).[84] Tufa Pigu subsequently adopted Tufa (禿髮) as the surname prior to the establishment of the Southern Liang.[84]
^The
Southern Liang was interrupted by the
Later Qin between AD 404 and AD 408. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 404 and the realm restored in AD 408. The
Prince Jing of Southern Liang was both the last ruler before the interregnum and the first ruler after the interregnum.
^The ruling house of the
Hu Xia initially bore the surname Luandi (攣鞮).[208]Liu (劉) was adopted as the surname prior to the establishment of the Hu Xia.[209] The
Emperor Wulie of Hu Xia subsequently adopted Helian (赫連) as the surname in AD 413 after the establishment of the Hu Xia.[209]
^
abThe
Emperor Huiyi of Yan was of Gaogouli descent. Originally surnamed Gao (高), he was an adopted member of the Murong (慕容) clan.[198] The enthronement of the
Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^
abDepending on the status of the
Emperor Huiyi of Yan, the
Northern Yan was established in either AD 407 or AD 409 and lasted either 29 years or 27 years.
^The ruling house of the
Sui dynasty initially bore the surname Yang (楊). The
Western Wei later bestowed the surname Puliuru (普六茹) upon the family.[222] The
Emperor Wen of Sui subsequently restored Yang as the surname in AD 580 prior to the establishment of the Sui dynasty.
^The ruling house of the
Tang dynasty initially bore the surname Li (李). The
Western Wei later bestowed the surname Daye (大野) upon the family.[224]Li was subsequently restored as the surname in AD 580 prior to the establishment of the Tang dynasty.
^The
Tang dynasty was interrupted by the
Wu Zhou between AD 690 and AD 705. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 690 and the realm restored in AD 705. The
Emperor Ruizong of Tang was the last ruler before the interregnum; the
Emperor Zhongzong of Tang was the first ruler after the interregnum.
^The ruling house of the
Later Tang initially bore the surname Zhuye (朱邪).[229] The
Emperor Xianzu of Later Tang subsequently adopted Li (李) as the surname in AD 869 prior to the establishment of the Later Tang.[229]
^The
Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang, originally without surname, was an adopted member of the Li (李) clan.[230] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^
abLi Congke was of
Han descent. Originally surnamed Wang (王), he was an adopted member of the Li (李) clan.[231] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^
abThe names of the
Later Jin (後晉) of the Shi clan and the
Later Jin (後金) of the
Aisin Gioro clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for "Jin".
^The
Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, originally surnamed Chai (柴), was an adopted member of the Guo (郭) clan.[234] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^
abcSome historians consider AD 902, the year in which the
Emperor Taizu of Yang Wu was proclaimed "Prince of Wu", to be the start of the
Yang Wu.[238] Accordingly, the Yang Wu was founded by the Emperor Taizu of Yang Wu and lasted 35 years.
^As
Zhu Wenjin, surnamed Zhu (朱), was not a member of the Wang (王) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[240]
^The ruling house of the
Jingnan initially bore the surname Gao (高). The
Prince Wuxin of Chu subsequently adopted Zhu (朱) as the surname, only to restore the surname Gao prior to the establishment of the Jingnan.[241]
^The ruling house of the
Southern Tang initially bore the surname Li (李). The
Emperor Liezu of Southern Tang subsequently adopted Xu (徐) as the surname, only to restore the surname Li in AD 939 after the establishment of the Southern Tang.[242]
^
abLiu Ji'en was of
Han descent. Originally surnamed Xue (薛), he was an adopted member of the Liu (劉) clan.[244] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^
abThe
Emperor Yingwu of Northern Han was of
Han descent. Originally surnamed He (何), he was an adopted member of the Liu (劉) clan.[245] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
^
abSome historians consider AD 907, the year in which the
Emperor Taizu of Liao was proclaimed "Khagan of the
Khitans", to be the start of the
Liao dynasty.[248] Accordingly, the Liao dynasty lasted 218 years.
^
abKuchlug, originally without surname, was of
Naiman descent. As he was not a member of the Yelü (耶律) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[249][250]
^The ruling house of the
Western Xia initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋). The
Tang dynasty and the
Song dynasty later bestowed the surnames Li (李) and Zhao (趙) upon the family respectively. The
Emperor Jingzong of Western Xia subsequently adopted Weiming (嵬名) as the surname in AD 1032 prior to the establishment of the Western Xia.[255]
^The ruling house of the
Yuan dynasty initially bore the surname Kiyad (乞顏).
Borjigin Munkhag and
Kiyad-Borjigin Khabul respectively adopted Borjigin (孛兒只斤) and Kiyad-Borjigin (乞顏·孛兒只斤) as the surname prior to the establishment of the Yuan dynasty. The
Emperor Liezu of Yuan subsequently restored Borjigin as the surname prior to the establishment of the Yuan dynasty.
^
abSome historians consider AD 1260, the year in which the
Emperor Shizu of Yuan was proclaimed "Khagan of the
Great Mongol State" and declared the era name "Zhongtong" (中統), to be the start of the
Yuan dynasty.[259] Accordingly, the Yuan dynasty lasted 108 years.
^The ruling house of the
Northern Yuan initially bore the surname Kiyad (乞顏).
Borjigin Munkhag and
Kiyad-Borjigin Khabul respectively adopted Borjigin (孛兒只斤) and Kiyad-Borjigin (乞顏·孛兒只斤) as the surname prior to the establishment of the Northern Yuan. The
Emperor Liezu of Yuan subsequently restored Borjigin as the surname prior to the establishment of the Northern Yuan.
^
abChoros Esen, surnamed Choros (綽羅斯), was of
Oirat descent. As he was not a member of the Borjigin (孛兒只斤) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[260][261]
^
abcTraditional Chinese historiography considers the
Northern Yuan to have ended in either AD 1388 or AD 1402 when the dynastic name "Great Yuan" was abolished.[263][264] Accordingly, the Northern Yuan lasted either 20 years or 34 years, and its last ruler was either the
Tianyuan Emperor or the
Örüg Temür Khan. However, some historians regard the Mongol-ruled regime that existed from AD 1388 or AD 1402 up to AD 1635—referred to in the History of Ming as "Dada" (韃靼)—as a direct continuation of the Northern Yuan.[265]
^
abcSome historians consider AD 1664, the year in which the reign of the
Dingwu Emperor came to an end, to be the end of the
Southern Ming.[268] Accordingly, the Southern Ming lasted 20 years and its last ruler was the Dingwu Emperor. However, the existence and identity of the Dingwu Emperor, supposedly reigned from AD 1646 to AD 1664, are disputed.
^The
Qing dynasty was briefly
restored between 1 July 1917 and 12 July 1917 when
Zhang Xun reinstalled the
Xuantong Emperor to the Chinese throne.[52] Due to the abortive nature of the event, it is usually excluded from Qing history.
^As proposed by scholars such as
Tan Qixiang, the geographical extent of "China" as defined in Chinese historical geography largely corresponds with the territories once ruled by the
Qing dynasty during its territorial peak between the AD 1750s and the AD 1840s, prior to the outbreak of the
First Opium War.[274] At its height, the Qing dynasty exercised jurisdiction over an area larger than 13 million km2, encompassing:[275][276][277]
Modern Chinese historiography considers all regimes, regardless of the ethnicity of the ruling class, that were established within or overlapped with the above geographical boundaries to be part of Chinese history.[284][285] Similarly, all ethnic groups that were active within the above geographical boundaries are considered ethnicities of China.[284][285] Regions outside of the above geographical boundaries but were under Chinese rule during various historical periods are included in the histories of the respective Chinese dynasties.
^The dynastic regimes included in this timeline are the same as the list above.
China Handbook Editorial Committee, China Handbook Series: History (trans., Dun J. Li), Beijing, 1982, pp. 188–189; and Shao Chang Lee, "China Cultural Development" (wall chart), East Lansing, 1984.
Wilkinson, Endymion Porter (2018). Chinese History: A New Manual (5th ed.). Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Asia Center.
ISBN9780998888309. Specifically Section A.2 "Dynasties", in this and earlier editions, which includes subsections on "Naming the Dynasties", "Sets of Dynasties", "The Dynastic Cycle", "Legitimate Succession", "Grade School History" (the effect on common understanding of China's history).