The Dvaravati Kingdom and contemporary Asian polities, circa 800.
Spread of Dvaravati Culture and Mon Dvaravati sites.
Mon Wheel of the Law (
Dharmacakra), art of Dvaravati period, c. 8th century CE.
Buddha, art of Dvaravati period, c. 8th-9th century CE.
Bronze double denarius of the Gallic Roman emperor
Victorinus (269-271 AD) found at U Thong, Thailand.
Khao Khlang Nai was a Buddhist sanctuary. The central stupa, rectangular in shape and oriented toward the east, is characteristic of dvaravati architectural style, dated back around 6th-7th century CE.
Khao Khlang Nok, was an ancient Dvaravati-style stupa in Si Thep, dated back around 8th-9th century CE, at present, it is large laterite base.
Dvaravati (
Thai: ทวารวดี) was an ancient
Mon political principality from the 6th century to the 11th century, located in the region now known as
central Thailand,[3][4]: 234 and was speculated to be a succeeding state of
Lang-chia or Lang-ya-hsiu (หลังยะสิ่ว).[5]: 268–270, 281 It was described by Chinese pilgrims in the middle of the 7th century as a Buddhist kingdom named To-lo-po-ti situated to the west of
Isanapura (
Cambodia), to the east of
Sri Ksetra (
Burma),[6]: 76 [7]: 37 and adjoined
Pan Pan in the South.[5]: 267, 269 Its northern border met Chia-lo-she-fo, which was speculated to be either Kalasapura, situated along the coast of the
Bay of Bengal somewhere between
Tavoy and
Rangoon,[8]: 108 or
Canasapura in modern
northeast Thailand.[9] Dvaravati sent the first embassy to the Chinese court in around 605–616.[5]: 264
Dvaravati also refers to a culture, an art style, and a disparate conglomeration of
principalities of
Mon people. Archaeological research over the past two decades or so has revealed the presence of a "Proto-Dvaravati" period which spans the 4th to 5th centuries, and perhaps earlier.[2]
Dvaravati lost its importance after the rise of the
Angkor in the lower
Mekong basin around the 11th–13th centuries. In the 14th century, one of its main principalities,
Si Thep, was almost left abandoned, while the remaining was split into the city-state confederation of Suphannabhumi in the west and the
Lavo Kingdom in the east. However, a new kingdom,
Ayutthaya, was subsequently founded southward on the bank of the
Chao Phraya River in 1351, as the succeeded state,[1] as its capital's full name referred to the Kingdom of Dvaravati; Krung Thep Dvaravati Si Ayutthaya (
Thai: กรุงเทพทวารวดีศรีอยุธยา).[10][11][12][13] All former Dvaravati principalities, Lavo, the northern cities of the
Sukhothai Kingdom, and Suphannabhumi, was later incorporated to the
Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1388, 1438, and the mid-15 century, respectively.[14]: 274
According to an inscription on a bronze gun acquired by the Burmese in 1767, when Ayuthia, Siam's capital at the time, fell to an invading Burmese force, the Burmese still referred to
Ayutthaya as Dvaravati.[15] Several genetic studies published in the 2020s also founded the relations between the
Mon people and
Siamese people (Central Thai people) who were the descendants of the Ayutthaya.[16][17]
History
The culture of Dvaravati was based around moated cities, the earliest of which appears to be
U Thong in what is now
Suphan Buri Province. Other key sites include
Nakhon Pathom,
Phong Tuk,
Si Thep,
Khu Bua and
Si Mahosot, amongst others.[2] Legends engraved on royal urns report the following kings: Suryavikrama (673-688), Harivikrama (688-695), Sihavikrama (695-718).[6]: 86 A
Khmer inscription dated 937 documents a line of princes of
Canasapura started by a
Bhagadatta and ended by a Sundaravarman and his sons Narapatisimhavarman and Mangalavarman.[6]: 122 But at that time, the 12th century, Dvaravati began to come under constant attacks and aggressions of the
Khmer Empire and central
Southeast Asia was ultimately invaded by King
Suryavarman II in the first half of the 12th century.[18]Hariphunchai survived its southern progenitors until the late 13th century, when it was incorporated into
Lan Na.[19]
The term Dvaravati derives from coins which were inscribed in
Sanskritśrī dvāravatī. The Sanskrit word dvāravatī literally means "that which has gates".[20]: 301
The traditional chronology of Dvaravati is mainly based on the Chinese textual account and stylistic comparison by art historians. However, the results from excavations in
Chan Sen and Tha Muang mound at U-Thong raise questions about the traditional dating. Newly dated typical Dvaravati cultural items from the site of
U-Thong indicate that the starting point of the tradition of Dvaravati culture possibly dates as far back as 200 CE.[21][2] Archaeological, art historical, and epigraphic (inscriptions) evidence all indicate, however, that the main period of Dvaravati spanned the seventh to ninth centuries.[2] Dvaravati culture and influence also spread into
Isan and parts of lowland
Laos from the sixth century onward. Key sites include
Mueang Fa Daet in
Kalasin Province,
Sema [
th] in
Nakhon Ratchasima Province, and many others.[22][23]
Government
Little is known about the administration of Dvaravati. It might simply have been a loose gathering of
chiefdoms rather than a centralised state, expanding from the coastal area of the upper peninsula to the riverine region of
Chao Phraya River.
Hinduism and
Buddhism were significant. The three largest settlements appear to have been at
Nakhon Pathom,
Suphanburi, and Praak Sriracha, with additional centers at
U Thong, Chansen,
Khu Bua, Pong Tuk, Mueang Phra Rot,
Lopburi, Si Mahosot,
Kamphaeng Saen, Dong Lakhon, U-Taphao, Ban Khu Mueang, and
Si Thep.[20]: 303–312
Rulers
The excavation in several sites found silver coins dated the 7th century that mentioned the king and queen of the kingdom written in
Sanskrit with
Pallava script: śrīdvaravatīsvarapunya (King Sridvaravati, who has great merit) and śrīdvaravatīsvaradevīpuṇya (the goddess of the meritorious King Dvaravati).[24] In addition, the copper plate dating from the 6th–mid 7th centuries found at
U Thong also mentions King Harshavarman (หรรษวรมัน), who was assumed by
Jean Boisselier to be one of the kings of Dvaravati, while
George Cœdès considered the plate was brought from the
Khmer Empire, and the name mentioned might be the Khmer king as well.[25] However, the periods seem unrelated since King
Harshavarman I of Khmer reigned from 910–923, 200 years later than the age of the inscription,[26][27] and Harshavarman I's grandfather was
Indravarman I,[28][29][30] not Isanavarman as the inscription mentioned.[25]
Moreover, the inscription found in Ban Wang Pai,
Phetchabun province (K. 978), dated 550 CE, also mentions the enthronement of the Dvaravati ruler, who was also a son of Prathivindravarman, father of
Bhavavarman I of
Chenla, which shows the royal lineage relation between Dvaravati and Chenla. However, the name of such a king was missing.[31] The other king was mentioned in the Nern Phra Ngam inscription, found in
Nakhon Pathom province, dated mid 5th – mid 6th centuries CE but the name was missing as well.[32]
The following is a list of rulers of Dvaravati.
Order
Name
Reign
Note
Ref.
Romanized
Thai
—
Rulers before Chakravantin's reign are still unknown.
Dvaravati itself was heavily influenced by
Indian culture, and played an important role in introducing
Buddhism and particularly
Buddhist art to the region.
Stuccomotifs on the religious monuments include
garudas,
makaras, and
Nāgas. Additionally, groups of musicians have been portrayed with their instruments, prisoners, females with their attendants, soldiers indicative of social life.
Votive tablets have also been found, also
moulds for tin
amulets, pottery,
terracotta trays, and a
bronze chandelier,
earrings, bells and
cymbals.[20]: 306–308
^Blagden, C.O. (1941).
"A XVIIth Century Malay Cannon in London". Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 19 (1): 122–124.
JSTOR41559979. Retrieved 13 April 2023. TA-HTAUNG TA_YA HNIT-HSE SHIT-KHU DWARAWATI THEIN YA - 1128 year (= 1766 A.D) obtained at the conquest of Dwarawati (= Siam). One may note that in that year the Burmese invaded Siam and captured Ayutthaya, the capital, in 1767.
^JARUDHIRANART, Jaroonsak (2017).
THE INTERPRETATION OF SI SATCHANALAI (Thesis). Silpakorn University. p. 31. Retrieved 13 April 2023. Ayutthaya, they still named the kingdom after its former kingdom as "Krung Thep Dvaravati Sri Ayutthaya".
^David K. Wyatt and Aroonrut Wichienkeeo. The Chiang Mai Chronicle, p.33
^
abcHigham, C., 2014, Early Mainland Southeast Asia, Bangkok: River Books Co., Ltd.,
ISBN9786167339443
^Glover, I. (2011). The Dvaravati Gap-Linking Prehistory and History in Early Thailand. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 30, 79-86.
^Bhattacharya, Kamaleswar (2009). A Selection of Sanskrit Inscriptions from Cambodia. In collaboration with Karl-Heinz Golzio. Center for Khmer Studies.
^Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture by Upendra Thakur. Page 37.
Robert L. Brown, The Dvaravati Wheels of the Law and the Indianization of South East Asia. Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology, Vol. 18,
Fontein, Jan, ed. Leiden and New York: E. J. Brill, 1996.
Elizabeth Lyons, “Dvaravati, a Consideration of its Formative Period”, R. B. Smith and W. Watson (eds.), Early South East Asia: Essays in Archaeology, History and Historical Geography, Oxford University Press, New York, 1979, pp. 352–359.
Dhida Saraya, (Sri) Dvaravati: the Initial Phase of Siam's History, Bangkok, Muang Boran, 1999,
ISBN974-7381-34-6
Swearer, Donald K. and Sommai Premchit. The Legend of Queen Cama: Bodhiramsi's
Camadevivamsa, a Translation and Commentary. New York: State University of New York Press, 1998.
ISBN0-7914-3776-0
Pierre Dupont, The Archaeology of the Mons of Dvāravatī, translated from the French with updates and additional appendices, figures and plans by Joyanto K.Sen, Bangkok, White Lotus Press, 2006.
Jean Boisselier, “Ū-Thòng et son importance pour l'histoire de Thaïlande [et] Nouvelles données sur l'histoire ancienne de Thaïlande”, Bōrānwitthayā rư̄ang MỮang ʻŪ Thō̜ng, Bangkok, Krom Sinlapakon, 2509 [1966], pp. 161–176.
Peter Skilling, "Dvaravati: Recent Revelations and Research", Dedications to Her Royal Highness Princess Galyani Vadhana Krom Luang Naradhiwas Rajanagarindra on her 80th birthday, Bangkok, The Siam Society, 2003, pp. 87–112.
Natasha Eilenberg, M.C. Subhadradis Diskul, Robert L. Brown (editors), Living a Life in Accord with Dhamma: Papers in Honor of Professor Jean Boisselier on his Eightieth Birthday, Bangkok, Silpakorn University, 1997.
C. Landes, “Pièce de l’époque romaine trouvé à U-Thong, Thaïlande”, The Silpakorn Journal, vol.26, no.1, 1982, pp. 113–115.
John Guy, Lost Kingdoms: Hindu Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast, New York and Bangkok, Metropolitan Museum of Art and River Books, 2014, p. 32.
Wārunī ʻŌsathārom. Mư̄ang Suphan bon sēnthāng kan̄plīanplǣng thāng prawattisāt Phutthasattawat thī 8 - ton Phutthasattawat thī 25 (History, development, and geography of the ancient city of Suphan Buri Province, Central Thailand, 8th-25th B.E.), Samnakphim Mahāwitthayālai Thammasāt, Krung Thēp, 2547.
Supitchar Jindawattanaphum (2020).
"หลักฐานการมีอยู่ของผู้ปกครอง และชนชั้นสูงสัมยทวารวดี" [Evidences of Governors and Aristocrats’ Existences in Dvaravati Period] (PDF) (in Thai). Nakhon Pathom Rajabhat University. Archived from
the original(PDF) on 25 April 2024.</ref>