In
Bactria,
Bessus raises a national revolt in the eastern satrapies using the title of King Artaxerxes V of
Persia.
Crossing the
Hindu Kush northward, probably over the
Khawak Pass,[1] Alexander brings his army, despite food shortages, to
Drapsaka. Outflanked, Bessus flees beyond the
Oxus river.
Crossing the Oxus, Alexander sends his general
Ptolemy in pursuit of Bessus. In the meantime, Bessus is overthrown by the
SogdianSpitamenes. Bessus is captured, flogged, and sent to Ptolemy in Bactria with the hope of appeasing Alexander. In due course, Bessus is publicly executed at
Ecbatana. With the death of Bessus (Artaxerxes V), Persian resistance to Alexander the Great ceases.
From
Maracanda, Alexander advances through
Cyropolis to the
Jaxartes river, the boundary of the Persian Empire. There he breaks the opposition of the
Scythian nomads by his use of catapults and, after defeating them in a battle on the north bank of the river, pursues them into the interior. On the site of modern
Khujand on the Jaxartes, he founds a city,
Alexandria Eschate, "the farthest."
At
Maracanda, Alexander murders
Cleitus, one of his most trusted commanders, friend and foster-brother, in a drunken quarrel; but his excessive display of remorse leads the army to pass a decree convicting Cleitus posthumously of treason.
Understanding now the danger represented by his enemy, Alexander moves personally to relieve Maracanda, only to learn that Spitamenes has left Sogdiana. Spitamenes then attacks
Bactra, from where he is repulsed with great difficulty by the
satrap of
Bactria,
Artabazus of Phrygia.
Alexander attacks
Oxyartes and the remaining Bactrian barons who are holding out in the hills of Paraetacene (modern
Tajikistan). The Macedonians seize the crag on which Oxyartes has his stronghold (the
Sogdian Rock), and among the captives is his daughter,
Roxana. In the reconciliation that follows the battle, Alexander marries Roxana. The rest of Oxyartes' opponents are either won over or crushed.
December –
Spitamenes is badly defeated by Alexander's general
Coenus. At this point Spitamenes' allies, feeling the situation desperate, kill their leader and send his head as a gift to Alexander.
Alexander the Great invades northern
India. Recrossing the
Hindu Kush, Alexander divides his forces. Half the army with the baggage under
Hephaestion and
Perdiccas, both cavalry commanders, are sent through the
Khyber Pass, while Alexander leads the rest, together with his siege train, through the hills to the north. His advance through
Swat and
Gandhara is marked by the storming of the almost impregnable pinnacle of
Aornos, a few miles west of the
Indus.
The relations between Alexander and
Aristotle are embittered by the execution of Aristotle's nephew, the historian
Callisthenes of
Olynthus, who is charged with
treason. Callisthenes has been accompanying Alexander to write a chronicle of the campaign.
Roman Republic
The
Samnite armycaptures Neapolis (present-day
Naples). The
Romans, who are meanwhile moving south while the Samnites are occupied with Tarentum, take the opportunity to recover Neapolis and, after a long siege, evict the Samnite garrison from the city and make it an ally of Rome..
On the left bank of the Hydaspes, Alexander fights his last great battle, the
Battle of the Hydaspes River. He and his general
Craterus defeat the
Indian King Porus. Alexander founds two cities there,
Alexandria on the Indus or Alexandria Nicaea (to celebrate his victory) and
Alexandria Bucephalous or Bucephala (named after his horse
Bucephalus, which dies there); and Porus becomes his friend and ally.
Philip, an officer in the service of Alexander the Great, is appointed satrap of India, including the provinces to the west of the Hydaspes, as far south as the junction of the Indus with the Acesines. Philip is put in charge by Alexander of building the city of
Alexandria on the Indus.
Alexander continues on to conquer all the headwaters of the Indus River. East of Porus' kingdom, near the
Ganges River, Alexander faces the powerful empire of
Magadha ruled by the
Nanda dynasty. Fearing the prospects of facing another powerful Indian army and exhausted by years of campaigning, his army mutinies at the
Hyphasis River (the modern
Beas River) and refuses to march further east, thus making this river mark the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests.
Following the mutiny of his army at the Hyphasis River, Alexander is persuaded by his army leaders to abandon his plans for invading the
Ganges Valley. Alexander appoints
Nearchus, a
Cretan with naval experience, as admiral and places under his command all in the ranks of his army with any knowledge of seafaring. Nearchus has Indian shipwrights build 800 vessels, some as large as 300 tons, to take the army through
Persian Gulf waters to Babylon. Alexander the Great begins the return march down the Indus to the sea.
After the departure of Alexander from India,
Philip is assassinated by some of the mercenary troops under his command. Alexander names
Eudamus and
Taxilas as replacement rulers of Philip's territories.
Roman Republic
Following their defeat by the
Roman forces in
Naples, the
Samnites declare war on Rome starting the
Second Samnite War. To help defeat the Samnites, the Romans make alliances with the peoples of Central
Italy to the north of
Samnium and with the
Apulians to the southeast.
(around this year) -
Pytheas made a voyage of naval exploration to northwestern Europe, reaching
Britain and the
Baltic Sea, and mentioning
Thule as the farthest island to the north in the Atlantic.
While returning to Persia, Alexander's army runs into the
Malli clans (in modern day
Multan). The ensuing battle severely weakens his army. Alexander sends much of his remaining army to
Carmania (modern southern
Iran) with his general
Craterus, while he leads the rest of his forces back to
Persia by the southern route through the Gedrosian Desert (now part of southern
Iran and
Makran in southern
Pakistan).
By the end of the year, Alexander's army reaches
Persepolis, while his navy, under Nearchus, reaches
Susa at around the same time.
The first known reference to
sugar cane appears in writings by Alexander the Great's admiral Nearchus, who writes of Indian reeds "that produce honey, although there are no bees".
Sicily
Agathocles, a rich and ambitious citizen of
Syracuse, is exiled for attempting to overthrow the
oligarchic party in the city.
China
Going against his loyalty to the figurehead monarch of the
Zhou Dynasty, the
Qin ruler, Duke Huiwen, takes on the title of
King Huiwen, claiming royal title and sparking a trend amongst other
Warring States rulers to do the same.
On returning to
Susa,
Persia,
Alexander the Great punishes those who he considers to have failed in their duties in his absence in
India, particularly those who have plundered tombs and temples. Alexander continues his policy of replacing senior officials and executing defaulting governors. Over a third of his
satraps are replaced and six are put to death. Three generals in
Media, including Cleander, the brother of
Coenus (who died in
326 BC), are accused of extortion and are arrested, tried and executed.
While at Susa, Alexander holds a feast to celebrate his capture of the
Persian Empire.
To further his policy of integrating the
Macedonians and Persians, Alexander and 80 of his officers take Persian wives. He and
Hephaestion marry
Darius III's daughters
Barsine (also called
Stateira) and
Drypteis, respectively, and 10,000 of his soldiers with native wives are given generous
dowries. His determination to incorporate Persians on equal terms into his army and into the administration of the provinces is bitterly resented by the Macedonians.
Alexander the Great spends the summer and autumn at the Median capital,
Ecbatana, where his best friend,
Hephaistion, dies during the autumn. Alexander indulges in extravagant mourning for his closest friend.
Alexander the Great's treasurer,
Harpalus, fearing arrest, flees from
Susa to
Athens. On arriving in Athens, he is imprisoned by the Athenians after a proposal of
Demosthenes and
Phocion, despite
Hypereides' opposition, who wanted an immediate uprising against Alexander. Harpalus brings with him considerable wealth collected from the spoils of Alexander's conquest of Asia. This money is entrusted to a committee led by
Demosthenes.
Dinarchus, a professional speech writer in Athens, comes to prominence in the scandal that follows the flight to Athens of Alexander the Great's treasurer, Harpalus. When Harpalus escapes and flees to
Crete, Dinarchus writes the prosecution speeches against Demosthenes,
Demades, Aristogiton, Philocles and other well-known politicians accused of misappropriating some of this money.
Demosthenes is convicted and imprisoned after being found guilty of misappropriating some of the funds that Alexander's treasurer, Harpalus, has brought with him. He escapes into exile, although his sentence is soon repealed. Although
Hypereides has supported Demosthenes in his struggle against the Macedonians, that support is withdrawn after the Harpalus affair. After Demosthenes' exile, Hypereides becomes the head of the patriotic party in Athens.
10 June/
11 June – In
Babylon,
Alexander the Greatdies, ten days after being taken ill after a prolonged banquet and drinking bout.
Diogenes, the philosopher he met years before, when he was just about to set out on his conquests, allegedly dies on the exact same day.
The
Partition of Babylon sets out the division of the territories conquered by Alexander the Great between his generals. The partition is a result of a compromise, essentially brokered by
Eumenes, following a conflict of opinion between the party of
Meleager, who wishes to give full power to
Philip III (the illegitimate son of King
Philip II of Macedon by Philinna of
Larissa), and the party of
Perdiccas, who wishes to wait for the birth of the heir of Alexander and his wife,
Roxana (the future
Alexander IV) to give him the throne under the control of a regent.
Under the agreement, Philip III becomes king, but Perdiccas, as the regent, effectively becomes the ruler of Alexander's empire. Perdiccas manages the partition of the territories between the former generals and saintly with Alexander's chief lieutenant
Craterus);
Meleager and about 300 of his partisans are killed by forces loyal to Perdiccas. The first wife of Alexander, Roxana, arranges for Alexander's second wife,
Stateira II (
Barsine), to be killed.
Greece
Some Greek cities, including
Athens, revolt against the Macedonian regent,
Antipater, following the news of Alexander's death. Athens' actions are incited by the speeches of the Athenian general
Leosthenes and the Athenian orator
Hypereides. Joined by cities in central and south
Greece, the Athenians defeat Antipater in battle. They force him to take refuge in
Lamia, where he is besieged for several months by the Greek allies.
The Greek philosopher and scientist,
Aristotle, faces a strong anti-Macedonian reaction in Athens following the death of Alexander the Great. Aristotle is accused of impiety by the Athenians. However, he escapes to
Chalcis in
Euboea.
Theophrastus, who has been studying in Athens under Aristotle, becomes the head of the
Lyceum, the academy in Athens founded by Aristotle, when Aristotle is forced to leave Athens.
Following Alexander the Great's death, the Athenians recall
Demosthenes from exile and provide the money to pay his fine.
The Athenians and their allies' siege of the Macedonian ruler,
Antipater, in
Lamia is relieved by
Leonnatus with an army of 20,000 infantry and 1,500 cavalry. Leonnatus is killed in the action.
The Athenian orator and diplomat,
Demades, regains his citizenship so that he and
Phocion can negotiate a peace with Antipater, thus concluding the
Lamian War. Before setting out he persuades the citizens of Athens to pass the death sentence upon
Demosthenes and his followers (including
Hypereides, leader of the Athenian patriotic party). Demades' embassy results in a peace disadvantageous to the Athenians, with the Athenians forced to accept the occupation of Athens' port,
Piraeus, by the Macedonians.
Demosthenes flees from the Macedonians who demand his surrender. Upon being arrested, he takes poison and dies.
Hypereides flees to
Aegina only to be captured by the Macedonians at the temple of Poseidon and put to death.
By custom, kings in
Macedonia assert their right to the throne by burying their predecessor. To pre-empt
Perdiccas, the imperial regent,
Ptolemy has
Alexander the Great's body brought to
Memphis, Egypt and buried there in a gold
sarcophagus. Ptolemy then marries Alexander's mistress,
Thaïs and commences to reign as king of
Egypt and the adjacent
Libyan and
Arabian regions.
Ptolemy, taking advantage of internal disturbances, acquires the African Hellenic towns of
Cyrenaica without the authority of Perdiccas.
Ptolemy executes his deputy,
Cleomenes of Naucratis, on the suspicion that Cleomenes favours Perdiccas. This action removes the chief check on his authority, and allows Ptolemy to obtain the sizable funds that Cleomenes has accumulated.
India
Chandragupta Maurya captures Magadha: Chandragupta, with the help of
Chanakya (Kautilya), who is also known as the Indian Machiavelli, destroys the Nanda rulers of
Magadha and establishes the
Maurya Empire. It is said that Chanakya met Chandragupta in the Vindhya forest, after being insulted by the Nanda king.
Leaving
Eumenes to hold
Asia Minor against
Craterus and Antigonus, Perdiccas marches against
Ptolemy, but when he fails to cross the
Nile he is murdered by mutinous officers. Prominent among the mutineers is
Seleucus. A truce is arranged, leaving Ptolemy in power in
Egypt and Seleucus in power in
Babylon.
The key remaining generals (
diadochi) of the late
Alexander the Great agree to the
Partition of Triparadisus (a town in northern
Syria). This is a power-sharing agreement providing for a new regent to replace Perdiccas and it repartitions the satrapies of the empire that has been created by Alexander the Great. It follows but modifies the
Partition of Babylon made two years earlier following the death of Alexander the Great. Under the agreement, Antipater becomes the regent of the Macedonian Empire on behalf of the two kings: the intellectually retarded
Philip III Arrhidaeus and the infant
Alexander IV of Macedon while Ptolemy is confirmed in possession of Egypt and
Cyrene.
Ptolemy further strengthens his position amongst the diadochi by marrying
Eurydice, the third daughter of Antipater.
Antigonus and Craterus defeat Eumenes in battle but Eumenes escapes. Antigonus and Craterus then besiege him unsuccessfully in the mountain fortress of Nora on the border between
Cappadocia and
Lycaonia. Craterus is killed during the fighting against Eumenes when his charging horse (Diodorus) falls over him.
Roman Republic
Continuing successes by
Rome's armies against the
Samnites forces the Samnites to sue for peace. However, the terms offered by Rome are so stringent that they are rejected by the Samnites and the war goes on.
Two Roman
consuls, Spurius Postumius Albinus and Titus Veturius Calvinus, leading an invading force into
Samnium, are trapped in a mountain pass known as the
Caudine Forks (
Caudium) near
Beneventum, where they can neither advance nor retire, and after a desperate struggle, they are forced to submit to the humiliating terms imposed by the Samnite victor, Gaius Pontius. The captured consuls pledge themselves to a five-year treaty on terms most favourable for the Samnites.